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	<title>The Postcolonialist | The Postcolonialist</title>
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		<title>Call for Papers: &#8220;Postcolonial Apertures: Critical Times and the Horizons of (De)Coloniality&#8221;</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/featured/call-papers-postcolonial-apertures-critical-times-horizons-decoloniality/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/featured/call-papers-postcolonial-apertures-critical-times-horizons-decoloniality/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 07 Dec 2015 17:47:47 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<category><![CDATA[Call for Papers]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Building upon our previous work, The Postcolonialist seeks new submissions for its next issue, &#8220;Postcolonial Apertures: Horizons of (De)Coloniality.&#8221; Recent years have seen critical changes occur across postcolonial regions, forcing[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/featured/call-papers-postcolonial-apertures-critical-times-horizons-decoloniality/">Call for Papers: &#8220;Postcolonial Apertures: Critical Times and the Horizons of (De)Coloniality&#8221;</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Building upon our previous work, The Postcolonialist seeks new submissions for its next issue, &#8220;Postcolonial Apertures: Horizons of (De)Coloniality.&#8221; Recent years have seen critical changes occur across postcolonial regions, forcing new conceptualizations of historical accounts, national and cultural narratives, and media discourse, along with a (re)deployment and rejection of narrative tropes. Massive forced migrations, economic and climate changes, and the specter of political violence have given way to a discourse of crisis. As we unpack current debates, we invite pieces that work with and against the terms colonial, postcolonial, and decolonial, thus redrawing the contours of current debates on postcolonialism and its legacies. Creative work, photography/painting series, essays, and academic writing are encouraged, as we seek to explore the intersection of the arts, media, and academic endeavors.</p>
<p>The Postcolonialist is alternative and interactive avenue by which scholars, journalists, artists, and activists from around the world can collaborate and engage in dialogues of culture, power, and civil society in Postcolonial regions (encompassing the Americas, the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Diasporic communities, and indeed the ex-métropoles). With a focus on multi-lingual and cross-regional work, The Postcolonialist endeavors to view the global South and its diaspora in concert. We seek to displace notions of “center” and “periphery,” instead showcasing the artistry, innovation, and critical production of postcolonial regions and peoples as constitutive of and central to a globally interconnected future.</p>
<p>The Postcolonialist welcomes contributions across disciplines and genres. While most contributions will be in English, submissions are welcome in French, Spanish, and Portuguese. Artwork, relevant interviews, and photography may also be welcome, though an initial proposal is typically submitted. Please include biographical information separately for peer reviewed academic submissions. Shorter pieces may be up to 1,500 words, while feature or scholarly articles may be up to 6,000 words. A short bio should be included with the submission. Areas of interest include but are not limited to: 1. Arts and society (includes literature and film); 2. Gender and political participation; 3. Education; 4. Immigration and diaspora; 5. Civil society and the international stage; 6. Media and the global South; 7. Citizenship and identity; 8. Language, multi-lingualism, and language hierarchies; 9. emerging markets.</p>
<p><b>Deadline: March 31, 2016. </b>Please send all inquiries and submissions to: Lara N. Dotson-Renta, PhD Founder &amp; Editor-in-Chief: <a href="mailto:editorinchief@postcolonialist.com" target="_blank">editorinchief@postcolonialist.com</a>  <a href="http://www.postcolonialist.com/" target="_blank">www.postcolonialist.com</a>.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/featured/call-papers-postcolonial-apertures-critical-times-horizons-decoloniality/">Call for Papers: &#8220;Postcolonial Apertures: Critical Times and the Horizons of (De)Coloniality&#8221;</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Scarlett Coten, Mectoub: In the Shadow of the Arab Spring</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/arts/scarlett-coten-mectoub-shadow-arab-spring/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/arts/scarlett-coten-mectoub-shadow-arab-spring/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 06 Oct 2015 12:07:37 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Arts]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Mariane Ibrahim Gallery]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Mectoub]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Mectoub: In the Shadow of the Arab Spring]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Scarlett Coten]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Seattle]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>The negotiation of identity looms large at the nexus of the colonial past and the postcolonial reality, and it is an important exercise for nations and citizens seeking separation and[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/scarlett-coten-mectoub-shadow-arab-spring/">Scarlett Coten, <i>Mectoub: In the Shadow of the Arab Spring</i></a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>The negotiation of identity looms large at the nexus of the colonial past and the postcolonial reality, and it is an important exercise for nations and citizens seeking separation and closure from the harmful and divisive legacies of colonialism. But there is a secondary process of separation too. This second separation involves becoming free from the literal and figurative mechanisms created to deal with the postcolonial reality. With the Arab Spring (also known as the Arab Uprising) in 2011, the world witnessed the citizenry of a group of countries in the Middle East and North Africa fighting to determine a future that was neither reactive, like the post-colony, nor externally administered, like the colonial past, but that was instead self-determined. It is this notion of self-determination that Scarlett Coten tackles in her exhibition <i>Mectoub: In the Shadow of the Arab Spring.</i></p>
<p>Fittingly, <i>Mectoub</i> made its American debut at Seattle’s <a href="http://marianeibrahim.com/" target="_blank">Mariane Ibrahim Gallery</a>, which in an art scene that is particularly homogenous, stands out as a trailblazer. It exhibits artists hailing from at least thirteen countries and five continents many of whom are of African, Asian, and Middle Eastern descent, and/or deal with themes in their works connected to these regions. The gallery has established a practice that rejects aesthetic and conceptual narratives steeped in the European art historical tradition, in favor of discourse and praxis that support and promote diversity of experience and identity.</p>
<div id="attachment_1987" style="width: 650px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/011-Mohamed-Nablus-Palestine-2014.jpeg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1987" alt="Mohamed, Nablus (2014), courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/011-Mohamed-Nablus-Palestine-2014.jpeg" width="640" height="427" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Mohamed, Nablus (2014), courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery</p></div>
<p>Coten’s <i>Mectoub</i> is the result of a discourse between photographer and subject, with Coten seeking to understand and document (mectoub means it was written, also destiny) identities other than what is considered ‘the standard’ (typically determined through a European lens). Coten’s decision to photograph Arab men bucks the global trend that focuses almost exclusively on the liberation of Arab and Muslim women who are framed as victims of an excessively oppressive Islamic patriarchy. Arab men are limited to caricatures of corrupt dictator, Muslim cleric or jihadist. Contrary to historical interactions between Westerners and Arabs, the men in <i>Mectoub</i> do not exercise their agency reactively. What we observe is a conversation. Coten asks “Who are you?” and these men respond assertively and unabashedly.</p>
<p>However tempting it may be to apply a Saidian analysis, the only, remotely Orientalist characteristic found in <i>Mectoub</i> is Coten’s French nationality. <i>Mectoub </i>is not the 19th century oft-salacious depictions of harems, bathhouses, and slave auctions. None of the men are dressed as devout, orthodox Muslims; thus a disassociation from Islam and the terrorist trope. Several are pictured bare chested, or with their shirts open in seductive, sexual poses. These postures could be interpreted as a nod to the odalisque genre of painting within Orientalist art however, the difference is that most of the men are looking directly at the camera and none of them are nude. When viewing the images, your eyes meet theirs straight away. The odalisque tradition portrayed fetishized female subjects: inanimate objects to be devoured by men. Coten depicts Arab men who are comfortable in their own skins, and who assert alternate gender and sexual identities over which the viewer, nor Coten herself, has no control.</p>
<div id="attachment_1989" style="width: 370px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Scarlett-Coten-Nubi-Cairo-2013-©Mariane-Ibrahim.jpeg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1989" alt="Nubi, Cairo, courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Scarlett-Coten-Nubi-Cairo-2013-©Mariane-Ibrahim.jpeg" width="360" height="240" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Nubi, Cairo, courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery</p></div>
<p>To suggest these poses were elicited by Coten is too simplistic an assessment. It supports the antiquated concept of the colonial subject incapable of thinking for himself. Further, it implies homogeneity amongst a population of people with immense diversity. There are four main dialects spoken across the region, and while Islam is the dominant religion there are sectarian differences, as well as notable communities of Christians, Jews, Druze, and others.</p>
<p><i>Mectoub </i>illustrates Arab men as proactive agents in the creation of their lives, their futures, and of their own representation. It effectively destroys the singular narrative that Arab identity is confined to patriarchal oppressive Islam and terrorism.  In a space where the agency of these men is intentionally brought to the fore, these men illustrate self-determination that we must consider has always been there, hidden behind prevailing monolithic narratives of the region. There is a power shift at work here. When the western viewer is no longer the sole agent and consumer of the identity of a people it once subjugated, imaginably there is discomfort, dissonance and a rejection.</p>
<div id="attachment_1988" style="width: 650px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/013-Nabil-Algiers-Algeria-2014.jpeg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1988" alt="Nabil, Algiers, Algeria, courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/013-Nabil-Algiers-Algeria-2014.jpeg" width="640" height="427" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Nabil, Algiers, Algeria, courtesy of the Mariane Ibrahim Gallery</p></div>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/scarlett-coten-mectoub-shadow-arab-spring/">Scarlett Coten, <i>Mectoub: In the Shadow of the Arab Spring</i></a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Letter from the Editors: “Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom”</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/letter-editors-excitable-speech-radical-discourse-limits-freedom/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/letter-editors-excitable-speech-radical-discourse-limits-freedom/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:35:29 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Global Perspectives]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Our latest call for papers, “Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom” sought to explore and question the notions of speech and open-ended discourse as “free,” and to[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/letter-editors-excitable-speech-radical-discourse-limits-freedom/">Letter from the Editors: “Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom”</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
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<p>Our latest call for papers, <i>“Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom”</i> sought to explore and question the notions of speech and open-ended discourse as “free,” and to challenge how dominant narratives are constructed and propagated. Despite the “free” and often overwhelming proliferation of ideas of the digital age, broad access has been paralleled by expansive moves towards censorship, both institutional and self-imposed, as well as the facile manipulation of information for personal or political gain. We have witnessed intense debate over the right to know and the right to tell, paired with tensions between individual rights and state interests often opposed to those of citizenry. Calls for expanded and <i>disruptive</i> dialogue have been a driving force behind sociopolitical movements that have taken excitable speech to the streets. Yet the concept of speech as something that can or should be unquestionably “free” and individualized may itself be an idea that privileges Western concepts of knowing, as other societies may prioritize speech and expression that encompass and serve the collective rather than the singular, or delineate vastly different lines between the public and the private.</p>
<p>Therefore, the featured pieces, ranging from academic research to poetry and photo essays, delve into the kinds of narratives and topics that are often elided, quieted, or subsumed, absorbed or refashioned under other more ‘acceptable’ or ‘mainstream’ speech and expression. These are topics that generate debate, or, alternately, are defined by absences that speak for themselves. Keivan Djavadzadeh’s piece “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/colonialite-du-pouvoir-postcolonialite-du-rap-lemergence-et-la-repression-dun-rap-francais-structure-autour-de-la-critique-postcoloniale-dans-les-annees-2000/">Colonialité du pouvoir, postcolonialité du rap: l’émergence et la repression d’un rap français structuré autour de la critique postcoloniale dans les années 2000</a>,” posits that French rap of the present decade presents a rupture from rap of the 90’s, taking a more political and anti-colonial slant which has been criminalized in the public sphere, therefore paradoxically ensuring its place within postcolonial discourse and keeping its critiques salient. Ritu Mathur engages “fast feminism” in her analysis of widespread politics of the womb that deploy women’s reproductive capacity against them via gendered violence (with an emphasis on South Asia) in her piece “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/excitable-speech-politics-womb-wake-grrrl/">Excitable Speech and the Politics of the Womb: Wake up Grrrl!</a>” Ana María Colling continues critiques of politics and gendered violence in a Brazilian context, outlining the fractures and impasses in discussing embedded gendered biases and practices in “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/os-impasses-das-questoes-de-genero-e-sexualidade-brasil-atual/">Os impasses das questões de gênero e sexualidade no Brasil atual</a>.”</p>
<p>Isolde Lecostey analyzes the role of satire and black humor in civil society and the challenge to describe or inscribe, align, or claim satire within national political discourse in the wake of the <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> attacks in her article “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/de-lhumour-noir-aux-caricatures-impenses-dune-tradition-satirique/">De l&#8217;humour noir aux caricatures : impensés d&#8217;une tradition satirique</a>.” David Bélanger and Josefina Bueno Alonso each take different lenses to Michel Houellebecq’s controversial yet widely read novel <i>Soumission</i>, as Bélanger <a href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/linquietante-liberte-de-la-litterature-le-cas-de-soumission-de-michel-houellebecq/">explores the limits of literature as a medium of unfettered expression</a>, and Bueno Alonso deconstructs what she deems the mysoginist and Islamophobic imaginaries of “political fiction” in “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/soumission-de-houellebecq-islamofoba-decadente-o-misogina/">Soumission de Houellebecq: ¿Islamófoba, decadente, o misógina?</a>”</p>
<p>Our other pieces delve into the ideas of not only what is said, but the notion of <i>how we say</i> what we say assigns or takes away value, as well as the intrinsic power behind omissions and silences. Ann Deslandes questions the power dynamics and the role of the eyes behind the camera in her film review “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/unsalting-earth-sebastiao-salgado-le-sel-de-la-terre/">Unsalting the Earth: Sebatião Salgado and Le sel de la terre</a>,” while Fodei Batty provides a challenge and a counterpoint to pervasive representations of Africa via a vibrant and at times tongue in cheek <a href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/alternative-lens-seeing-sierra-leone-like-postcolony/">photo essay of his native Sierra Leone</a>, devoid of the prevalent poverty and despair images of the continent. His related piece also seeks to detour mainstream depiction, as “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/braving-oceans-migration-subjective-illegality-pilgrim-fathers-boat-migrants/">Braving Oceans: Migration and Subjective Illegality from the Pilgrim Fathers to the Boat Migrants,</a>” provides an alternate assessment of mass movement of peoples, highlighting how those moving between spaces are imagined differently according to their site of origin.</p>
<p>The idea of language itself as that which stakes powerful claims to place and identity is explored in various works, such as “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/writing-rites-reclamation-blackness-caribbean-remembering/">Writing Rites of Reclamation: Blackness and Caribbean Remembering</a>” by Melanie Manuel Webb, which posits the act and ritual of writing as a reclamation of soul, self, and identity in the Caribbean context. By way of historical account as well as reclamation, Cruzhilda López draws upon her academic linguistic knowledge in her creation of an alphabetical, lexical explanation of Puerto Rico’s complex colonial history (and present) in her unique and timely piece “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/represion-persecucion-y-estrategia-de-lucha-del-independentismo-puertorriqueno/">Represión, persecución y estrategia de lucha del independentismo puertorriqueño</a><i>.”</i> Sania Sufi beautifully highlights the epic nature of family narrative in her memoir “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/dispatches-lahore-importance-politicized-ancestral-narratives/">Dispatches from Lahore: The Importance of Politicized Ancestral Narratives</a>,” which weaves together English and Urdu and brings to life both the wounds and beauty of pre-partition Pakistan and India through memories and images of her grandfather. Trihn Lo explores the linkages between content, form, and the expressive and creative act in her poem &#8220;<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/la-naissance-du-sens-poetry/">À la naissance du sens</a>.&#8221; Finally, Manash Bhattacharjee reminds us of the primal power of one’s native tongue, and what is lost and negotiated as multiple languages battle for primacy in the domestic as well as public space in his poem “<a href="http://postcolonialist.com/uncategorized/mother-tongue-poetry/">Mother Tongue</a>.”</p>
<p>Together, these pieces offer a glimpse into how language, narrative, and discourse are framed and reframed within numerous cultural and regional contexts, continually revising and interrogating the meaning of “free,” and refashioning the contours of “excitable” speech.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/letter-editors-excitable-speech-radical-discourse-limits-freedom/">Letter from the Editors: “Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom”</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Dispatches from Lahore: The Importance of Politicized Ancestral Narratives</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/dispatches-lahore-importance-politicized-ancestral-narratives/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:23:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Che Guevara once said that revolutions are driven by a deep sense of love.[1] I smile at these words, for I have witnessed such love of humanity in the pedagogical[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/dispatches-lahore-importance-politicized-ancestral-narratives/">Dispatches from Lahore: The Importance of Politicized Ancestral Narratives</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><i>Che Guevara once said that revolutions are driven by a deep sense of love.</i><a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a><i> I smile at these words, for I have witnessed such love of humanity in the pedagogical praxis of a man not too long ago. This love is not merely abstract but is also evident in the narratives of </i>al-nas<i>, the Qur’anic term for masses of people, and their ability to act as a fundamental component of social change.</i></p>
<p>I spent my summers growing up at my grandparent’s residence in Lahore, Pakistan. Every morning, despite the sleepless nights spent goofing around with my cousins, I was begrudgingly woken up by my mother and taken to the breakfast table. &#8220;Eat!&#8221; <i>nanabu</i> (maternal grandfather) would say, &#8220;This is halal!&#8221; Despite his repeated insistence, my American upbringing conditioned me not to stomach (pun intended) the lahori delicacy of <i>siri paye</i>, or the head and hooves of goat. I looked on; however, as I could tell how much enjoyment my beloved grandfather took in eating and also giving food to others. Perhaps feeding others freely was an acquired trait rooted in his impoverished past as a laborer in pre-partition Amritsar. As my cousins and I had compromised on minced meat sandwiches with butter slathered toast &#8211; made by <i>nanabu</i> himself, mind you &#8211; the lethargy from the previous night subsided as our oblong breakfast table in Lahore converted into an intellectual coffeehouse.</p>
<p>Despite having completed only a fifth grade education, Nanabu would recite poetry from memorization. My grandfather was not educated; he was knowledgeable. His intellectual prowess would today be castigated by western secular epistemology, which de-legitimizes knowledge rooted in indigenous and religious traditions, attained outside the context of an institution. Many of his favorite poems mirrored Eastern/Islamic philosophy or political thought. He revered Iqbal; many Muslim colonial subjects from the Punjab did. “<i>Nanabu agar aap parh likhe hotey aap shayad Einstein bante</i>! (If you finished school perhaps you would have become Einstein!)” I would tell him. “<i>Nahi</i>,” he would say, “<i>mai kuch nahi hoon</i>.” (No, I am nothing.) He carried himself with humility, a rare trait to be found these days. After all, such morals only serve to strengthen human beings, yet weaken citizenship, the central social identity defined by the nation-state and its restrictive parameters.</p>
<p><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/nanabu.jpeg"><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1946" alt="nanabu" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/nanabu-1024x957.jpeg" width="622" height="581" /></a></p>
<p>His room smelled of a hint of cigarettes, English toffee, and cologne. If I were to smell his sweater long enough today, I am able to place myself back in his room, twirling from his music collection to his books to his chairs and coffee table for his guests, whilst catching a whiff of that intoxicating scent. It is an odd combination of smells for a young girl to adore, but I loved it nonetheless. Much to our parents chagrin, my cousins and I would mimick <i>nanabu</i> &#8212; and not TV or billboard ads &#8212; as we held the perfectly crafted cigarette between our fingers. I don’t know why our parents hindered us from constantly barging in his room, it was clearly the most exhilarating! The man had an aura of magnetism around him, which his eight children and twenty-five plus grandchildren can attest &#8211; although I admit, we are perhaps biased. I have always felt that it was his undying belief in self and community empowerment which made him unique; he exuded an understated confidence. “<i>Khudi ko kar buland itna kay har taqdeer se pehle khuda bande se pooche ‘bata teri raza kya hai</i>? (Elevate yourself so high that before every decree, God asks you ‘What is your wish?’)” he would often remind us. Nanabu sought refuge and agency in Iqbal’s concept of <i>khudi; </i>it allowed him the political imagination to envision a future beyond an occupied existence. He was amongst the Muslim underclasses of British Punjab; an ordinary man. And yet, in this ordinary existence of odd-end jobs, political turmoil, and social isolation, his rigorous and continuous engagement with intellectual advancement made him extraordinary.</p>
<p>My poetry classes at the breakfast table were complemented by evening lectures and discussions surrounding classical Urdu and Punjabi <i>ghazals, </i>or lyrical poems set to music. Nanabu taught us to recognize enlightenment through various mediums &#8211; whether in music, human relationships, or poetry. My cousins and I would often tip-toe into his room, <i>paanch </i>(meaning ‘five,’ as the rooms of the house were numbered) and turn on his stereo system. We were disappointed when a click of the on button did not result in the latest Western pop music as it did on MTV India, however, later on in life we would appreciate the wisdom behind <i>nanabu</i>’s mystical collection of poetic <i>ghazals</i>. Faiz taught me the multiple meanings behind struggle, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman became a language for those silenced, and the <i>raags</i>, or musical notes, accompanied by Ustad Barkat Ali Khan and Begum Akhtar allowed me to envisage love as a metaphor for a broader political and spiritual vision. There is a well-known phrase in Urdu related to the complex art of raising children: <i>taaleem-o-tarbiyat</i>. Nanabu’s <i>tarbiyat</i>, or upbringing, of his children is (hopefully) apparent in our commitment to <i>ihsan</i> (the Muslim responsibility to seek excellence in worship), and his instilling of <i>taleem </i>(education) is in our constant search for knowledge, which elevates human beings.</p>
<p><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/1930216_20430363477_6792_n.jpg"><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1945" alt="1930216_20430363477_6792_n" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/1930216_20430363477_6792_n.jpg" width="604" height="559" /></a></p>
<p>Besides being my respected elder and fashion inspiration, <i>nanabu </i>was also my go-to political analyst in Lahore. His morning routine consisted of feeding the animals in our front yard, followed by reading his newspaper in the garden. As a quiet yet curious teenager, I was eager to inform myself about the world, and so I asked <i>nanabu</i> if he would subscribe to the English language newspaper for me. We read our Urdu and English newspapers and mutually reflected knowledge based on our respective times. He brought in wisdom rooted in poetic politics and spirituality. I was the young woman who asked questions – still a daring concept in many contexts. After 9/11, I would inform him about the plight of American Muslims. As I detailed the stories of mass surveillance, detainment, and racial profiling, my capricious tone &#8211; sometimes reflecting anger, sometimes desolation &#8211; revealed my adolescent reaction to the extremity of the situation. Nanabu; however, would simply nod with a monotonous expression as if he was somehow familiar with the narrative of isolation. His wounds as an occupied subject of British colonialism allowed him to relate to and critique post-9/11 geopolitics. He would speak of the economic disenfranchisement of Muslims in colonial Punjab, for instance, as an integral component of occupation. While the economic condition of Muslims in post-9/11 American cannot act as a parallel, the ideologies of power and occupation still permeate political and social contexts. Nanabu understood such ideologies, their centrality to US Empire, and their influence in peripheral institutions. My camaraderie with my grandfather reflected what I yearned for in the US: a detailed critique of Empire and its consequences. Our conversations provided me with the intellectual vigor to examine politics not from the perspective of those in power, but from the sea of people whose existence and resistance serves as a reminder of the spiritual heights the human race is capable of.</p>
<p>Like soldiers returning after a sanguinary war, survivors of the colonial and partition era also embodied significant trauma. Life moved on for my grandfather and others, but they were never able to revert to the previous state; I’m not sure if my grandfather ever did. Despite wounds rooted in enforced poverty, violence, and war, <i>nanabu</i> also shared stories that represented kindness, human empathy, and the will to implement <i>ihsaan</i>, or good, which Islam teaches is a part of worship. There was a particularly special story in which <i>nanabu</i> remembered the benevolence and companionship provided to him, a young Muslim boy, by a newly wedded Sikh woman in his time of distress. During one of his odd jobs, he had to deliver a package to someone’s house. He couldn’t find the house; however, and came across a Sikh woman who &#8212; through her <i>ghoongat</i>, or uniquely styled scarf which gave away her identity as a new bride &#8212; spoke to him in Punjabi: “<i>Veer, ai lo roti kha. Assi chadd awaan ge</i>. (Brother, here eat some food. We will drop off the package.)  Nanabu remembered the softness in her voice sixty-five years later as he lay on his deathbed in post-partition Pakistan, her kindness remembered across newly drawn geopolitical lines.</p>
<p>The humanity exemplified in my grandfather’s story problematizes the orientalist tropes of the ‘intolerant’ Hindu, Sikh, or Muslim taught in prevailing westernized discourses. Indigenous narratives evoking memory of a South Asia once known for its interreligious harmony, political unity, and camaraderie challenges the matrix of Empire and client state patronage and thus acts as a politicized weapon of truth-telling and resistance.</p>
<p><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Premgali.jpg"><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1947" alt="Premgali" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Premgali.jpg" width="570" height="870" /></a></p>
<p>In a way, my grandfather’s generation represented a lost tribe. Freedom, for them, was a glimmering memory of the past. And yet memories often have the power to reinvigorate the beauty and consciousness found within the collective human spirit. Pakistan was created in 1947, and my grandfather’s love for his land was spiritually kinetic. I often wish my grandfather and Edward Said could have met, as Said’s writing often follows a theme on homeland and displacement.<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> Nanabu’s sentiments can be explained by a simple truth: as the country grew, so did he. As Pakistan’s newly born population crafted statehood, <i>nanabu </i>immersed himself in Islamic intellectual history, poetry, and grew intellectually. As the country neared its fifth year, <i>nanabu</i> laid the foundations for his business and contributed to Pakistan’s industrial growth. And when our repackaged colonial ‘leaders’ sold the country in promises of multi-billion dollar deals and validation from western interests, <i>nanabu</i>’s lamenting sighs echoed those of Faiz in poetic form: <i>Chale chalo, kay woh manzil abhi nahi aye (Let us go on, for that goal has not yet arrived)</i>. What else is there to describe about a traveller&#8217;s compassion towards his fellow traveler?</p>
<p>He was not a class theorist, yet his critiques on the subject were much more refined than those of the elites of the country. “<i>Inka bhi dehan rakhna chahiye</i>” (We should take care of them too), he told me once as he pointed to the servant staff in our house. As I grew older my interest in the family business piqued, and so I would ask <i>nanabu</i> questions about his employees &#8212; <i>‘approximately how many employees?’ ‘What is their pay?’ ‘Are there unions?’</i> While memories have faded, I recall him always prioritizing the rights of workers in his responses. He did this in other contexts as well; car rides home after meeting with relatives or friends were slightly daunting, as everyone anticipated <i>nanabu’s</i> interrogation sessions.<i>‘Kithon aye ho? Khane kinney da si? </i>Ik mazdoor di kamaai day barabar tussi Ik din da khana kha lita! (Where are you coming from? How much was dinner? The dinner you all ate was equivalent to a worker’s salary!’)<i> </i>He would ask this in a pre-partition Punjabi vernacular that now seems like a wistfully lost art. I dearly miss that line of questioning; it reminded me to live amongst the people.</p>
<p>Towards the end of his life <i>nanabu</i> found it difficult to speak due to illness. What was perhaps most difficult for his family, and presumably for him as well, was to witness the slow acquiescence of a man brimming with stories, travels, lessons, and other remnants of wisdom. South Asian women are the ones usually depicted as vivacious, with their rich clothing and jewelry &#8211; however my grandfather was no less colorful. On one August 14th, Pakistan’s independence day, in an effort to get my grandfather to speak, my mother asked him the obvious question. “<i>Aaj chauda August hai abaii, aaj kera din ai</i>? (Today is August 14th dad, what happened today?)” With eyes wide open and his neck lifting from his reclined state <i>nanabu</i> replied &#8212; in a rather confident and doting tone: “<i>Pakistan bana tha</i>! (Pakistan was made!)” I remember his love for homeland not as a cry for nationalism but rather as a profound trust in the fruits of liberation and struggle for justice.</p>
<p>Islamic philosopher Syed Naquib al Attas defines knowledge as an individual’s recognition of his/her place in God’s hierarchy of beings.<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> My grandfather was not a theologian, but rather an individual part of a sea of people who recognize their existence as spiritual beings with a collective commitment to pursue knowledge as a means to implement<i> ihsan</i> in worldly and spiritual affairs. Part of this commitment also entails restoring the balance of <i>tawheed</i>, or oneness of God and His creation, within the self and greater society. Nanabu was not without flaws, but that is exactly the point. Iranian intellectual Ali Shariati says that human beings are constantly migrating &#8211; migrating within the soul &#8211; which parallels <i>jihad al akbar, </i>or the greater struggle with one’s ego.<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a> He embodied a constant struggle: as a subject of a colonial occupation, as a laborer, as a self and community taught thinker, and as a self-made industrialist.</p>
<p>A month ago I sat in a mosque <i>nanabu</i> had built in Sheikhpura, a small industrial village on the outskirts of Lahore. I offered the early afternoon prayer, and as my forehead met with the carpet I thought about the significance behind such an act. In an age of modernity, where the technologies of progress are constantly defined by <i>the self</i>, my prayer represented the antithesis of what we call progress. That act of prostration, that <i>dire</i> need for the spirit to find its way home, represents sagely wisdom lost amidst today’s talk of progress. My grandfather’s praxis represented a softer revolution: to realign the soul with its Divine origin. The memory of him embodying <i>khudi and revolutionary love is with me today, and </i>continues to remind me of the deeper imperative to decolonize and indigenize collective political systems, but also individual hearts and minds as well.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/dispatches-lahore-importance-politicized-ancestral-narratives/">Dispatches from Lahore: The Importance of Politicized Ancestral Narratives</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Os impasses das questões de gênero e sexualidade no Brasil atual</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/os-impasses-das-questoes-de-genero-e-sexualidade-brasil-atual/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/os-impasses-das-questoes-de-genero-e-sexualidade-brasil-atual/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:23:25 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Academic Dispatches]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Academic Journal: Summer 2015 (Issue: Vol. 3, Number 1)]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Featured]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Global Perspectives]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Brazil]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Gender & Sexuality]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Apesar dos avanços no combate à desigualdade de gênero no mundo e da presença das mulheres em todos os segmentos da sociedade, as conquistas ainda são lentas e o mito[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/os-impasses-das-questoes-de-genero-e-sexualidade-brasil-atual/">Os impasses das questões de gênero e sexualidade no Brasil atual</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Apesar dos avanços no combate à desigualdade de gênero no mundo e da presença das mulheres em todos os segmentos da sociedade, as conquistas ainda são lentas e o mito do sexo frágil e da dependência ao masculino continua.  E, a mais dramática herança da desigualdade entre os sexos que paira sobre todos nós, dos países ricos aos países pobres, é a violência contra a mulher, radical desigualdade entre homens e mulheres. Infelizmente o avanço das leis igualitárias não é suficiente para combater a violência contra as mulheres sacralizada em nossa sociedade.</p>
<p>As modulações discursivas do pensamento filosófico e suas articulações com outros discursos como o religioso, médico, psicológico, psicanalítico, pedagógico, etc., transformaram-se em práticas que irão afetar a sociedade como um todo, instituindo um modelo de homem e de mulher, e de relação entre eles. Inaugurando as redes discursivas sobre a desigualdade entre os sexos, o filósofo grego Aristóteles em uma obra monumental, descreveu a diferença entre os animais machos e fêmeas, inclusive homens e mulheres. Demonstra que as mulheres tem a voz mais fina, os pelos mais ralos e que  morrem antes dos homens. Mas, o mais importante desta obra, e que será utilizado como desqualificação do feminino,  são os estudos sobre o tamanho dos cérebros. A mulher, segundo o filósofo, possui um cérebro menor do que o homem. Durante muito tempo, essa diferença foi utilizada para impedir que as mulheres estudassem, trabalhassem etc. Também foi um importante referencial na feitura dos códigos napoleônicos e do Código Civil Brasileiro para torná-las incapazes, subordinadas ao homem, tido como racional e capaz.</p>
<p>A historiografia acompanhou este movimento de silenciamentos e desqualificação de sujeitos Ao longo do tempo escreveu sobre os feitos das camadas dominantes e silenciou a grande parte da população. As versões históricas do passado giraram em torno do sujeito masculino, heterossexual, branco das camadas privilegiadas. A presença feminina, assim como a indígena e a negra sempre foi registrada ocasionalmente, especialmente quando fugia dos padrões de comportamento estabelecidos.</p>
<p>Quando acabou o sistema escravista em 1888, uma mancha vergonhosa na história do Brasil, poucos efeitos sentiram as mulheres. No ano seguinte, com o  fim do Império e o advento da República, elas não foram alçadas à categoria de cidadãs pela nova constituição e continuaram relativamente incapazes pelo Código Civil de inspiração napoleônica.</p>
<p>A mudança inicia no Brasil, assim como no restante do mundo, a partir do movimento feminista, demanda social e política, responsável pelas conquistas das mulheres. As universidades e as editoras agora viam com bons olhos trabalhos sobre a emancipação feminina. As universidades começaram a receber mulheres, inicialmente como alunas e depois em seus quadros profissionais, e consequentemente novas pesquisas envolvendo estas novas questões e novos sujeitos foram se multiplicando. Mas, apesar do longo caminho percorrido, do reconhecimento de novos objetos como o poder, o corpo, o cotidiano, a sexualidade, a vida privada, a situação das  mulheres e das relações de gênero ainda enfrentam desafios e impasses. Mesmo com incentivos públicos através do fomento às pesquisas, as diversas áreas do saber continuam encarando com desconforto a inserção feminina como agente histórica e sua incorporação, assim como os demais sujeitos excluídos, ao protagonismo histórico.</p>
<p>Novas perspectivas de pesquisa tem ocupado importantes espaços acadêmicos no Brasil. A ANPUH, Associação Nacional de História, possui Grupos  temáticos de Gênero para socializar e debater as pesquisas realizadas pelos historiadores/as brasileiros/as.  Reunidos/as a cada ano os/as pesquisadores/as apresentam temáticas  múltiplas e diversificadas, e uma preocupação é constante: como ultrapassar o gueto historiográfico e  incorporar a perspectiva de gênero na forma de pensar a história e o conhecimento histórico. Novos campos de pesquisa histórica, além de mulheres, sexualidades, feminismos, corpos, etc., são incorporados ao debate como masculinidades, maternidade/paternidade, famílias, homossexualidades, etc.</p>
<p>Também no Brasil ocorre a cada dois anos, desde 1994,  o <i>Seminário Internacional Fazendo  Gênero</i>, em Florianópolis. Sua característica é a interdisciplinaridade, reunindo intelectuais das mais variadas áreas do conhecimento.  A última edição reuniu 4.033 especialistas para discutir gênero, feminismos, mulheres, masculinidades, sexualidades, etc. As temáticas abordadas nos trabalhos apresentados  de maior incidência foram mídia, etnia/raça, memória e corpo.</p>
<p>No campo da educação a questão de gênero também tem assumido um caráter emergencial e urgente, entendendo que a escola é um lugar de demarcação do feminino e do masculino e o estabelecimento das desigualdades de gênero. Se ela produziu hierarquias e sujeições entre os sexos, pode agora produzir relações igualitárias e democráticas. Os novos arranjos familiares, as novas parentalidades, as novas sexualidades tem batido à porta das escolas, que muitas vezes se mostra arredia. Apesar da importância destes estudos, no mês de junho do corrente ano, foram debatidos e votados os Planos de Educação, à nível nacional, estadual e municipal. Em quase todos eles foi retirada a questão de gênero, isso a partir de argumentos baseados em preconceitos.</p>
<p>O estudos das masculinidades e dos movimentos LGBTTTs (lésbicas, gays, bissexuais, transexuais e transgêneros),  encontraram nos estudos de gênero um campo fértil para seus estudos. Hoje no Brasil, os eventos que discutem  gênero, recebem uma grande quantidade de  trabalhos que analisam as questões de identidade e sexualidade e das orientações sexuais  discriminadas.</p>
<p>Também aparecem como novas perspectivas de pesquisa a articulação dos estudos  de gênero  com a crítica pós-colonialista (análise dos efeitos não somente políticos, mas filosóficos e históricos deixados pelos países colonizadores nos países colonizados).  Estas estudiosas e estudiosos, entendem que será  a partir das margens e não do centro a construção de um novo projeto de sociedade, pois a  crítica pós-colonial tenta recuperar as vozes dos silenciados pelo colonizador.</p>
<p>Em contrapartida, o Brasil está vivendo uma situação paradoxal em relação às questões de gênero e das sexualidades, tanto no campo público como privado. Ao mesmo tempo em que viveu os avanços do movimento feminista, como em todo o mundo ocidental, carrega a herança colonial machista. Nos dois últimos anos tem regredido assustadoramente nas questões dos direitos das mulheres e dos homossexuais, transexuais e transgêneros.</p>
<p>As propostas de combate à desigualdade e discriminação, como o kit anti-homofobia, material didático produzido pelo Ministério da Educação,  com o objetivo de auxiliar as escolas na educação igualitária, são impedidas pela bancada evangélica, numerosa no Congresso Nacional. Conservadora e moralista barra todas as discussões relacionadas às questões corpo, à sexualidade, especialmente à homossexualidade. Também são barradas as propostas de  descriminalização do aborto, apesar dos abortos clandestinos serem a  causa da morte de milhares de  mulheres. Segundo dados da Pesquisa Nacional do Aborto feita em 2010 uma em cada cinco  mulheres fez aborto até os 40 anos de idade  no Brasil. Tudo que diz respeito ao corpo, à sexualidade, especialmente à homossexualidade, causa pavor  nos políticos  conservadores e moralistas.<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a></p>
<p>O fato de termos uma presidenta mulher, pela primeira vez na história do Brasil,  não significa que estamos salvos do pensamento machista sacralizado em nossa sociedade. Pelo contrário, tem colocado à nú a ideologia ou pensamento do que pensam brasileiros e brasileiras sobre a participação da mulher na política. Isso é comprovado em episódios como nas passeatas ocorridas  no mês de maio, organizadas pela oposição à presidenta Dilma Roussef.  Por todo o país, liam-se os cartazes denegrindo a imagem da presidenta a partir de marcação de gênero. O mais sério, baixando de vez o nível da aceitabilidade ou conivência, foi a feitura de adesivos misóginos, feitos para vender, e que foram  denunciados pela Secretaria de Polícias para Mulheres. Os adesivos com o rosto da presidenta numa montagem no corpo de uma mulher jovem e de pernas abertas, tinha como finalidade ser colado na entrada de combustível dos automóveis. Ela seria penetrada pela bomba de combustível.</p>
<p>Segundo as investigações, a autora dos adesivos seria uma mulher, demonstrando que os discursos machistas atuam de maneira tão efetiva que incorporam-se em homens e mulheres. Se admitirmos que a violência simbólica se exerce prioritariamente sobre as mulheres, não poderemos supor que baste ser mulher para se ter uma visão libertadora das mulheres. A visão feminina é uma visão dominada, colonizada, que não consegue ver a si mesma com autonomia. Segundo Pierre Bourdieu, “é preciso descolonizar o feminino”.</p>
<p>O Brasil tem apresentado ou simplesmente escancarado sua face machista e racista como nunca em sua história. Apesar de ser um país mestiço, pardo, a desigualdade entre brancos e  negros  e pardos é abissal. As cotas para afro-descendentes nas universidades brasileiras ainda são motivo de debates calorosos. A elite branca não aceita ter que dividir vagas nas universidades e empregos, e não consegue entender que para acertar o futuro precisa acertar as contas com seu passado.  A união da desigualdade de gênero, com a desigualdade de raça, ainda é muito presente na sociedade brasileira.</p>
<p>Um caso paragdimático de um país que não consegue apagar as marcas da escravidão, apesar do abolicionismo ter acontecido oficialmente em 1888, gerou protestos, recentemente, escancarando a hipocrisia da igualdade racial brasileira. Uma repórter negra, da mais importante emissora de televisão brasileira,  recebeu centenas de agressões nas redes sociais que diziam entre outras agressões, “onde posso comprar esta escrava?”, “não bebo café para não ter intimidade com o preto”, preta macaca”, “só conseguiu emprego pelas cotas”, etc. O caso foi amplamente noticiado e discutido por diversos segmentos. Esse episódio nos faz refletir sobre quantas mulheres negras brasileiras, especialmente pobres, escutam diariamente estes impropérios, mas, por não se tratar de uma personagem midiática não alcançam a proporção desse caso.</p>
<p>Soma-se a isso uma Câmara de deputados onde a maioria é extremamente conservadora, não somente no plano político, mas no plano moral e dos avanços nas questões de gênero e sexualidade. Poucas deputadas e senadoras são eleitas para o Congresso nacional e as eleitas passam muitas vezes por cenas constrangedoras e de desacato às suas pessoas. Há poucos dias um deputado torceu o braço de uma colega deputada, que ao exigir providências ao ato de agressão, ouviu de outro deputado “mulher que participa de política e bate como homem tem que apanhar como homem”. São somente 51 mulheres no total de 513 deputados e 13 em 81 senadores. Segundo dados da ONU, o Brasil ocupa o 124º lugar entre os que têm maior  número de mulheres na política.</p>
<p>Mas, o maior impasse entre os avanços da igualdade de gênero, é a sua radical desigualdade – a violência contra a mulher. Apesar das leis igualitárias como a Constituição de 1988, o novo Código Civil (2002) e a Lei Maria da Penha (2006), o Programa   ‘Mulher, Viver sem Violência’ (2013), a  violência, questão de saúde pública,  continua de uma forma crescente. Estas leis igualitárias são fundamentais, assim como outros dispositivos e  discursos para a mudança comportamental, mas sozinhas se transformam em letras mortas. Como mudar uma sociedade que desqualifica de todas as formas  o feminino e aqueles que não correspondem à heteronormatividade?</p>
<p>A história da violência contra a mulher no Brasil e a sua naturalização é longa. As constituições tratavam a mulher como uma quase nada, os códigos  que permitiam castigar a mulher e até assassiná-la ainda estão presentes no imaginário masculino e feminino devido a sua longevidade e pelos diversos discursos legitimadores reproduzidos na sociedade. Esses discursos são potentes e envolvem alguns mitos. Demonstrando essa realidade a pesquisa intitulada “Tolerância social à violência contra as mulheres”, realizada  em 2013 e publicada em março de 2014 pelo IPEA <a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>,   assustou o Brasil. Respondendo a questão “mulher que é agredida e continua com o parceiro gosta de apanhar” teve como respostas 42,7% que concordaram totalmente e 22,4% que concordaram parcialmente. Um alto índice de entrevistados declarou que a mulher provoca seus agressores, ou pela vestimenta, ou pelo comportamento. O alarmente  é que as mulheres consistiram no  maior número das entrevistadas, 66%.</p>
<p>O ano de 1979, marcou a vitória do movimento  feminista contra a impunidade destes assassinatos, tidos como crimes da paixão. Durante o julgamento de Doca Street pelo assassinato de sua companheira  Ângela Diniz, ocorrido em 1976,  surgiram pela primeira vez manifestações feministas contra  a impunidade em casos de assassinatos de mulheres por homens. De vítima, Ângela passou a ser acusada de “denegrir os bons costumes”, “ter vida desregrada”, “ser mulher de vida fácil”. Era como se o assassino tivesse livrado a sociedade inteira de um indivíduo que punha em risco a moral da família brasileira. As feministas organizadas conseguiram reverter o processo e o assassino foi condenado.  Surge deste episódio o lema “Quem ama não mata”  que acabou se transformando numa  minissérie de televisão, com altíssima audiência.</p>
<p>A urgência de se atuar contra todo o tipo de violência da qual a mulher é vítima, emerge como ideia no Encontro feminista de Valinhos, São Paulo, em junho de 1980, com a recomendação da criação de centros de autodefesa. O SOS Mulher traduziu-se na criação das Delegacias Especiais para Atendimento de Mulheres Vítimas de Violência. A primeira implementada em 1985 em São Paulo,  serve como modelo e a partir daí irradiam-se no restante do país.</p>
<p>Incrementação importantíssima na luta contra a impunidade foram estas delegacias, porque muitas vezes a polícia transformava o interrogatório das vítimas numa verdadeira tortura, desconfiando da inocência da mulher e até manifestando uma certa cumplicidade com o comportamento do agressor. As raras queixas, as dificuldades de prova e a estigmatização da vítima sempre foram componentes que transformaram o crime da violação feminina em assunto doméstico e pessoal.</p>
<p>Nas últimas três décadas, o número de mulheres assassinadas triplicou no país. Para coibir essa violência em 2006 foi criada a  Lei Maria da Penha. Esta Lei além de criar mecanismos para barrar a violência, dispõe sobre a criação de Juizados de violência doméstica e familiar contra a mulher, altera o Código de processo penal, o Código penal e a Lei de execução penal. A Lei Maria da Penha possibilita que os agressores sejam presos em flagrante ou tenham prisão preventiva detectada, quando ameaçam a integridade física da mulher. Prevê também medidas de proteção para a mulher que corre risco de vida, como a afastamento do agressor do domicilio e a proibição de sua proximidade física junto à mulher agredida e seus filhos. Nomeia as formas de violência, não somente física, como  psicológica, sexual, patrimonial e moral, independente de orientação sexual.</p>
<p>Segundo dados do Mapa da Violência de 2012,  dos 70.270 atendimentos de mulheres em 2010, em todo o país, 71,8% foram dentro da residência das vítimas, sendo o companheiro o principal agressor. Cresce o número de assassinatos de ex-mulheres, ex-namoradas, ex-amantes que após separadas,  não querem voltar para o companheiro. Entre janeiro e junho de 2013, a central de atendimento á mulher – ligue 180<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> – contabilizou 306.201 registros de mulheres que ousaram denunciar agressões sofridas, aumentando para 3.364.633 o número total de atendimentos computados desde a implantação da Lei Maria da Penha. Vemos que o aumento de registros de abusos e violências foi imenso após 2006. Sabemos que os casos não aumentaram, mas as mulheres sentiram-se encorajadas em denunciar.</p>
<p>No primeiro semestre de 2014, segundo balanço divulgado pela Secretaria de Políticas para as Mulheres da Presidência da República, foram registrados mais de 300 mil atendimentos. A maior parte das ligações foi sobre relatos de violência física, seguida de violência psicológica, moral, sexual, patrimonial, cárcere privado e tráfico de pessoas. Em 83,8% dos relatos de violência, o agressor era o companheiro, cônjuge, namorado ou ex-companheiro da vítima. Quase 60% das mulheres agredidas tinham 20 a 39 anos, 62% não dependiam financeiramente do agressor e 82,7% eram mães.</p>
<p>Segundo esta mesma Secretaria,  uma mulher sofre violência a cada 12 segundos no Brasil. A cada 2 minutos cinco mulheres são espancadas, e a cada 2 horas (em algumas estatísticas 1 hora e meia) uma mulher é assassinada no Brasil. Esses são os números apresentados pelo Ministério da Saúde que colocam o país em 12º lugar no ranking mundial de homicídios de mulheres vitimadas por parentes, maridos, namorados, ex-companheiros ou homens que se acharam no direito de agredi-las. Um dado alarmante é o envolvimento de crianças que presenciam os casos de violência, que no ano que passou de 64% dos casos. E estudos demonstram que crianças que sofrem ou presenciam violência tendem a ser violentas no futuro, pois naturalizam estes atos.</p>
<p>A violência contra as mulheres é historicamente naturalizada, conservando o estatuto da defesa da honra masculina estabelecido no Código Civil de 1917, que teve vida muito longa, e que transformava a mulher em um quase nada. Herança cruel do patriarcado, ainda presente no corpo social. As Constituições brasileiras, com exceção da carta cidadã de 1988, desconsideravam a mulher como sujeitos, contribuindo com a construção do discurso machista arraigado na sociedade.</p>
<p>Muito há para fazer no campo dos discursos e das práticas. Das práticas discursivas e não discursivas que nos falava Michel Foucault. O empoderamento feminino é tarefa urgente. Não é mero acaso ser o Brasil o país do mundo em que as mulheres mais fazem cirurgia plástica, assim como serem 75% dos consumidores de remédios psiquiátricos. Apesar das leis igualitárias, das pesquisas acadêmicas, da atuação das ONGS (Organizações Não Governamentais) o impasse continua: como transformar a cultura que aprendeu como verdade a desqualificação do feminino?</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/os-impasses-das-questoes-de-genero-e-sexualidade-brasil-atual/">Os impasses das questões de gênero e sexualidade no Brasil atual</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Colonialité du pouvoir, postcolonialité du rap : l’émergence et la répression d’un rap français structuré autour de la critique postcoloniale dans les années 2000</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/colonialite-du-pouvoir-postcolonialite-du-rap-lemergence-et-la-repression-dun-rap-francais-structure-autour-de-la-critique-postcoloniale-dans-les-annees-2000/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/colonialite-du-pouvoir-postcolonialite-du-rap-lemergence-et-la-repression-dun-rap-francais-structure-autour-de-la-critique-postcoloniale-dans-les-annees-2000/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:23:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Cet article se propose d’interroger le tournant postcolonial opéré par le rap français dans les années 2000 en s’intéressant à la fois à l’émergence d’une critique postcoloniale dans cette musique[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/colonialite-du-pouvoir-postcolonialite-du-rap-lemergence-et-la-repression-dun-rap-francais-structure-autour-de-la-critique-postcoloniale-dans-les-annees-2000/">Colonialité du pouvoir, postcolonialité du rap : l’émergence et la répression d’un rap français structuré autour de la critique postcoloniale dans les années 2000</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Cet article se propose d’interroger le tournant postcolonial opéré par le rap français dans les années 2000 en s’intéressant à la fois à l’émergence d’une critique postcoloniale dans cette musique et à sa répression. Je souhaite montrer que depuis le procès intenté à Hamé du groupe La Rumeur, les attaques portées contre le rap sont de nature différente de celles traditionnellement portées contre cette musique dans les années 1990. Si le rap était autrefois critiqué pour sa violence, c’est désormais la critique postcoloniale – requalifiée alors en « discours anti-Français » ou « anti-Blancs » – qui est directement visée. La prise de conscience du fait postcolonial a longtemps été retardée par la prétention à l’universalisme du modèle républicain français. Alors que les <i>postcolonial studies</i> forment un champ d’études universitaires depuis une trentaine d’années aux Etats-Unis, le chantier n’a été ouvert que très récemment en France. Il a fallu attendre le début des années 2000 et le « retour des mémoires coloniales » pour que la France effectue sa difficile mue postcoloniale, non sans y opposer une forte résistance (Cohen et al. 2007)<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>.</p>
<p>En France, un certain nombre de rappeurs contribuèrent au tournant postcolonial de la France et de son rap. Parmi ces artistes, qui émergent dans les années 2000, se trouvent La Rumeur, qui le premier qualifia sa musique de « rap de fils d’immigré »<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>,<i> </i>Casey, Rocé, La Caution ou encore Médine. Les identités plurielles postcoloniales énoncées dans le rap visent, comme l’explique Casey, à faire émerger « le point de vue des damnés des colonies »<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> et à démontrer l’hypocrisie de l’universalisme abstrait de la république qui masque en réalité son ethnocentrisme et, plus encore, sa colonialité<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>. Les « politiques de la ville » contemporaines – euphémisme désignant le traitement spécifique réservé aux banlieues – sont ainsi vécues par les populations ciblées, souvent originaires des anciennes colonies françaises, comme la continuité des politiques coloniales d’hier. Deux ans après les émeutes urbaines de 2005, Ekoué du groupe La Rumeur revenait sur les évènements et donnait voix à un sentiment partagé en pointant que « tout porte à croire que les <i>tiers-quar</i> [quartiers] ont toute la France contre eux »<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a>. Puisque de nombreux rappeurs ont grandi dans ces quartiers et/ou sont « fils d’immigrés », ils sont identifiés par les pouvoirs publics et les médias comme les « porte-paroles » de la jeunesse postcoloniale des quartiers (Prévos 1998 : 67-69 ; Béru 2006 : 62-63). C’est à ce titre qu’un certain nombre d’entre eux furent conviés à venir s’exprimer sur les plateaux télévisés lors des émeutes de 2005<a title="" href="#_ftn6">[6]</a>. Ceux qui refusaient de se plier aux injonctions à la responsabilité furent accusés par des personnalités de droite d’être « <i>hardcore</i> » et de propager un discours haineux « anti-Français ». Comme le notait le journal <i>Le Monde</i>, le rap fut dès lors mis « à l’index » (Le Monde 2005).</p>
<p>C’est parce que le fait postcolonial s’est imposé en France que la critique postcoloniale a trouvé sa place dans le rap françaises mais, dans le même temps, les rappeurs ont été des acteurs de premier plan qui ont contribué, avec d’autres, à ce tournant postcolonial. Dans un premier temps, j’explorerai une généalogie de l’émergence de la critique postcoloniale dans le rap pour en montrer la spécificité. Si les thèmes du rap postcolonial des années 2000 ne sont pas inédits, ils sont énoncés en des termes qui, eux, sont majoritairement absents du discours public. Dans un deuxième temps, je reviendrai sur la répression du rap depuis le procès intenté à Hamé. Je souhaite montrer que l’acharnement du pouvoir contre la critique postcoloniale dans le rap ne fait que donner de la force à cette dernière. Car en poursuivant les groupes de rap « postcoloniaux », le pouvoir affirme sa propre colonialité qu’il entendait pourtant réfuter.</p>
<h1><b>I. </b><b>Le tournant postcolonial du rap français</b></h1>
<h2><b>Le rap français a-t-il toujours été postcolonial ?</b></h2>
<p>La plupart des universitaires écrivant sur le rap français s’accordent sur la dimension identitaire postcoloniale de cette musique sans pour autant distinguer suffisamment entre les différentes périodes (Prévos 2002 ; Béru 2006). J’affirme pour ma part que cette dimension postcoloniale n’est réellement devenue structurante que dans les années 2000. Cela ne veut pas dire que l’on ne trouve pas de commentaires sur la colonisation, l’esclavage ou l’immigration dans le rap des années 1990 – et notamment chez IAM, le Suprême NTM ou encore le Ministère A.M.E.R., les trois principaux groupes français des débuts<a title="" href="#_ftn7">[7]</a> du genre – mais plutôt que la perspective adoptée diffère de ce que l’on observe à partir des années 2000.</p>
<p>Nombreux sont les rappeurs qui, dans les années 1990, ont traité dans leurs chansons du harcèlement policier contre les jeunes des quartiers populaires ou de la colonisation notamment. Prenons le Suprême NTM par exemple. Dans « Plus jamais ça », Kool Shen rappe :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Les honneurs, la patrie, les conquêtes et les colonies</li>
<li>On a déjà vu le résultat de ces conneries</li>
<li>Alors va-t-on continuer à se laisser manœuvrer</li>
<li>Par la haine d’un déséquilibré mental</li>
<li>Je vous rappelle qu’il prône la ségrégation raciale</li>
<li>Je vous rappelle encore que cet homme n’est pas normal</li>
<li>Et ce depuis la déconvenue de la guerre d’Algérie<a class="poetry" title="" href="#_ftn8">[8]</a></li>
</ul>
<p>Il y a ici un commentaire évident du passé colonialiste et impérialiste de la France. Mais cela suffit-il pour faire de « Plus jamais ça » un morceau « postcolonial » ? Le mot d’ordre « plus jamais ça » et la perspective adoptée tranchent avec le rap postcolonial des années 2000. Pour les groupes postcoloniaux, « tout brûle déjà », comme l’affirme La Rumeur qui titre ainsi son dernier album. Alors que la plupart des groupes des années 1990 commentent le passé colonialiste de la France, les groupes postcoloniaux des années 2000 vont plus loin en établissant un <i>continuum</i> entre le passé colonialiste de la France et l’actuelle colonialité du pouvoir. À la différence de ce qu’on observe chez Casey ou La Rumeur notamment, la perspective dans « Plus jamais ça » n’est que peu phénoménologique. Kool Shen décrit des faits plus qu’une condition qui lui serait propre<a title="" href="#_ftn9">[9]</a>. Il poursuit d’ailleurs :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Mais nous on s’en bat les couilles, on n’était pas là</li>
<li>Et on est tous las de ce retour au même schéma<a title="" href="#_ftn10">[10]</a></li>
</ul>
<p>C’est là une différence majeure avec les rappeurs postcoloniaux des années 2000 qui considèrent que leur condition postcoloniale, directement héritée du colonialisme, est inscrite en eux, gravée à même leur corps. Ils n’étaient peut-être « pas là » mais ces évènements, dans leur actualité, continuent de surdéterminer leur existence, qu’il s’agisse des opportunités d’accès à l’emploi ou au logement ou même, plus directement, de leur personnalité.</p>
<p>Dans « Tragédie d’une trajectoire », morceau qui n’est pas sans rappeler les pages autobiographiques de Fanon dans <i>Peau noire, masques blancs</i>, Casey décrit sa propre expérience vécue et les conséquences psychologiques de sa condition subalterne :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Tout ça n’a pas de sens, mais tout ça laisse des traces</li>
<li>Et je ne dis rien à ma mère le soir quand elle m’embrasse<a title="" href="#_ftn11">[11]</a></li>
</ul>
<p>La tragédie de Casey, c’est de ne pas maîtriser sa trajectoire parce que surdéterminée par sa condition minoritaire. Dans le premier couplet, cette impuissance est énoncée par une série de questions : « Pourquoi suis-je si radicale ? » ; « pourquoi suis-je si marginale ? » et « pourquoi être stable dans ma tête est impossible ? » Il ne fait pas de doute ici que Casey décrit sa propre expérience vécue  ; bien que l’esclavage et la colonisation soient derrière elle, « tout ça laisse des traces ». C’est cette dimension phénoménologique qui est largement absente des premiers enregistrements du rap français, même si les prémisses d’une critique postcoloniale se font entendre. Les groupes des années 1990, s’ils abordent parfois la colonisation, l’immigration et l’esclavage, n’en font cependant pas des éléments déterminants de leur identité comme le feront les groupes de rap qui émergent dans les années 2000.</p>
<p>Il me semble que l’on peut avancer trois hypothèses pour expliquer cette différence générationnelle. Tout d’abord, le rap français était une musique dont l’imaginaire était encore largement américain. Or, ainsi que le note Laurent Béru, le rap est, aux États-Unis, un art post-ségrégation plus que postcolonial. Il a fallu que le rap français s’émancipe de ses influences pour devenir postcolonial, ainsi que le supposait le contexte français. Ensuite, c’est la construction médiatique du rap comme « expression des banlieues et des minorités » qui va amener les rappeurs, à partir des années 1990, à revendiquer un message directement politique sur la banlieue et les minorités raciales et ethniques. Tout à la fois rejetés et fétichisés, les rappeurs accèdent à une forme de médiatisation ambivalente et sont érigés en porte-paroles de la jeunesse urbaine postcoloniale. Dès lors, leur parole sur la banlieue est paradoxalement légitimée. Karim Hammou observe que « l’assignation médiatique du rap aux banlieues et l’ancrage du hip-hop dans les quartiers de la politique de la ville interagissent ainsi avec l’expérience sociale d’une frange de la jeunesse, dans un contexte de paupérisation des quartiers populaires, de ségrégation spatiale accrue et de tournant répressif dans la gestion des illégalismes populaires. Ils contribuent à légitimer l’élaboration musicale de formes d’écriture, de points de vue et de thèmes nouveaux » (Hammou 2012, 141). Par ce statut nouveau conféré par leur médiatisation soudaine, les rappeurs ont désormais un accès à la parole publique, et une injonction à l’expression d’un point de vue politique sur la banlieue. D’abord ludique, le rap devient politique. Comme l’affirme Mathieu Marquet dans son article sur la politisation de la parole rap, « c’est le fait même de <i>pouvoir dire </i>qui mène vers une <i>envie de dire</i>, et partant, à l’expression du et d’un point de vue politique » (Marquet 2013). Cette <i>envie de dire</i> va progressivement prendre la forme d’un discours postcolonial. Progressivement, car pour que le rap devienne postcolonial, encore fallait-il que le fait postcolonial se soit imposé en France. Cela ne s’est fait qu’au cours des années 2000 alors qu’il était largement ignoré ou minoré avant cela (Smouts 2010). C’est donc la troisième hypothèse que je formule : le contexte était davantage propice dans les années 2000<a title="" href="#_ftn12">[12]</a>. Cela étant dit, je n’affirme pas, loin de là, que les groupes « postcoloniaux » n’ont fait que s’engouffrer dans la brèche. Au contraire, je pense que la France a effectué sa difficile mue postcoloniale en partie grâce au rap qui, dans le même temps, s’est nourri de la critique postcoloniale et de sa « bibliothèque […] en pleine expansion » (Cohen et al. 2007). Certains rappeurs ont donc été des acteurs qui ont introduit la critique postcoloniale en France, même s’ils ne l’ont bien évidemment pas fait seuls<a title="" href="#_ftn13">[13]</a>.</p>
<h2><b>L’expérience vécue de la condition minoritaire comme fondement de la critique postcoloniale</b></h2>
<p>Dans un article traitant des liens entre la critique postcoloniale et la critique de classe dans le rap français, Marie Sonnette affirme que la critique postcoloniale passe par des modes d’énonciation spécifiques, et notamment par la constitution d’un sujet collectif, un « nous » postcolonial. Pour autant, « derrière les &#8220;nous&#8221; englobant les minorités issues de la colonisation viennent s’apposer des réalités différentes selon les rappeurs et les morceaux » (Sonnette 2014 :168). Il me paraît nécessaire de préciser ici que cet article ne prétend pas à l’exhaustivité en ce qui concerne la critique postcoloniale dans le rap français. Plutôt, il va s’agir d’étudier quelques groupes et artistes considérés comme représentatifs de la critique postcoloniale ou ayant joué un rôle actif dans le tournant postcolonial de la société française (La Rumeur, Casey, La Caution et Rocé, principalement). Au-delà des différences qui existent entre les rappeurs et groupes étudiés, la critique formulée par les groupes de rap postcoloniaux témoigne d’une prise de conscience de la part des minorités dites « issues de l’immigration » d’inégalités structurelles de représentations culturelles et politiques et de discriminations systémiques à leur égard. Si les rappeurs ont publicisé (et ainsi politisé) les discriminations qui s’exerçaient à leur encontre, ils ont également revendiqué une identité culturelle partagée autour du souvenir de l’esclavage, de la colonisation, de l’immigration et des articulations entre ces trois mémoires. Pour nombre de jeunes dits « issus de l’immigration », seule la culture populaire, et en premier lieu le rap, est à même d’offrir des représentations susceptibles d’être réappropriées. A l’inverse, l’école, en tant qu’appareil idéologique d’État<a title="" href="#_ftn14">[14]</a>, est souvent un passage obligé dans l’apprentissage de la colonialité du pouvoir pour les élèves originaires des anciennes colonies. Dans un entretien, Hamé évoque le sentiment d’humiliation qu’il a souvent ressenti à l’école, depuis le « nos ancêtres les gaulois » jusqu’à l’enseignement de la colonisation et de la guerre d’Algérie (Tévanian 2012). Chez nombre de rappeurs, il s’agit là d’un trauma fondateur qui va nourrir leur critique postcoloniale et qu’ils vont mettre en scène dans leurs chansons. Casey se remémore ainsi ses années collège et le racisme de l’institution à son encontre :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Au collège, ils me connaissent, se plaignent et ils gémissent</li>
<li>La proviseure est une connasse qui me vire et me menace</li>
<li>D’appeler la police pour ma sale tignasse</li>
<li>Et les profs me provoquent, chaque jour me convoquent</li>
<li>Et me disent qu’on me scolarise pour les allocs.</li>
<li>Donc je réplique, moi l’enfant de la république</li>
<li>Et on me rétorque que tout c’que j’mérite c’est des claques<a title="" href="#_ftn15">[15]</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Dans « Le cartable renversé », paru sur l’album <i>L’être humain et le réverbère</i>, Rocé passe en revue un certain nombre des situations où se joue l’apprentissage des rapports de pouvoir, comme lorsqu’un enfant d’immigrés est pris pour cible par une institutrice :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Jusqu&#8217;à ce jour la voix d’sa mère l&#8217;avait bercé</li>
<li>Sur les bienfaits d&#8217;être droit envers l&#8217;autorité</li>
<li>Loin des p&#8217;tits cons d&#8217;en bas que les emmerdes ont cerné</li>
<li>En réponse au trama, son cartable renversé<a title="" href="#_ftn16">[16]</a></li>
</ul>
<div id="attachment_1883" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1883" alt="Image 1. La Caution, Peines de Maures/Arc-en-ciel pour daltoniens" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/LaCaution-disc-300x298.jpg" width="300" height="298" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Image 1. La Caution, <i>Peines de Maures/Arc-en-ciel pour daltoniens</i></p></div>
<p>Cet apprentissage du racisme et de la condition minoritaire est également évoqué par Nikkfurie, du groupe La Caution, dans « Thé à la menthe » : « Jeune, j’ai l’souvenir d’une « Madame Nicole » / Instit’ qui pensait qu’un bougnoule n’était pas fait pour l’école »<a title="" href="#_ftn17">[17]</a>. Dans la phénoménologie de la domination mise en scène dans les paroles rap, l’école constitue le lieu premier de la prise de conscience du racisme. D’où la pochette de l’album <i>Peines de Maures / Arc-en-ciel pour daltoniens</i> (image 1) qui représente les deux rappeurs enfants, comme pour montrer que, « pourtant jeunes et innocents »<a title="" href="#_ftn18">[18]</a>, c’est bien à cette époque qu’ils ont pris conscience de leur condition postcoloniale. Bien que nés en France, les rappeurs ne sont pas perçus comme « Français » à part entière puisque « ce pays [la France] est presque le [leur] / Mais seulement presque »<a title="" href="#_ftn19">[19]</a>. Ne pouvant être simplement Français, c’est dans la réappropriation du stigmate « indigène » ou « issu de l’immigration » que se joue la subjectivation des identités plurielles. Cette stratégie de la réappropriation du stigmate est explicite chez Rocé :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>Il y a un vécu à défendre</li>
<li>Il y a une vision à répandre</li>
<li>Et de nous vers eux</li>
<li>Il y a une étiquette à leur rendre<a title="" href="#_ftn20">[20]</a></li>
</ul>
<p>Pour les groupes et artistes qui portent la critique postcoloniale, le point de départ de leur « trajectoire » (Casey), de leur « identité en crescendo » (Rocé), de leurs « peines de Maures » (La Caution), c’est l’immigration et le souvenir de la colonisation, ainsi que le clame La Rumeur : « C’est une valise dans un coin / qui hurle au destin qu’elle n’est pas venue en vain »<a title="" href="#_ftn21">[21]</a>. Le rap postcolonial semble avoir fait siennes les leçons de Benjamin dans ses « Thèses sur le concept d’histoire », et plus particulièrement celle-ci :</p>
<blockquote><p>« Il existe un rendez-vous tacite entre les générations passées et la nôtre. Nous avons été attendus sur la terre. À nous, comme à chaque génération précédente, fut accordée une <i>faible</i> force messianique sur laquelle le passé fait valoir une prétention » (Benjamin 2000 : 428-429)</p></blockquote>
<p>C’est donc dans l’appropriation du passé que le présent peut s’éclairer. Sans cela, « même les morts ne seront pas en sûreté » (Benjamin 2000 : 431). Et il suffit pour s’en convaincre de se remémorer les débats de 2005, année décidemment charnière, ayant mené à l’adoption d’une loi faisant valoir un prétendu « rôle positif » de la colonisation<a title="" href="#_ftn22">[22]</a>.</p>
<h1> <b>II. </b><b>Le rap postcolonial exposé, la colonialité du pouvoir démasquée</b></h1>
<h2><b>« Qui sont vos frères ? » : retour sur le procès intenté à Hamé</b></h2>
<div id="attachment_1884" style="width: 237px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Hame-Insecurite.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1884" alt="Image 2. Hamé, « Insécurité sous la plume d’un barbare », La Rumeur Magazine, n° 1, 29 avril 2012." src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Hame-Insecurite-227x300.jpg" width="227" height="300" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Image 2. Hamé, « Insécurité sous la plume d’un barbare », <i>La Rumeur Magazine</i>, n° 1, 29 avril 2012.</p></div>
<p>Depuis ses débuts en France, le rap a toujours été exposé médiatiquement, condamné moralement et poursuivi judiciairement par les représentants des forces de police ou par des politiques (Prévos 1998). Comme cela s’est produit aux Etats-Unis, le rap en France a très tôt été condamné par la classe politique pour la « violence » de ses paroles<a title="" href="#_ftn23">[23]</a>. Mais alors que le fait postcolonial prend de l’importance dans les années 2000 et que l’écran de l’universalisme abstrait se fissure, le rap est alors dénoncé pour toute autre chose. Désormais, ce sont la critique postcoloniale et la francité même des artistes qui sont dans le viseur des hommes politiques. Initiateur de ce changement est le procès intenté à Hamé par le ministère de l’intérieur.</p>
<p>En 2002, Hamé écrit dans le <i>fanzine</i> du groupe publié à l’occasion de la sortie du premier album un pamphlet intitulé « Insécurité sous la plume d’un barbare ». Dans ce texte, il affirme notamment que « les rapports du ministère de l’intérieur ne feront jamais état des centaines de nos frères abattus par les forces de police sans qu’aucun des assassins n’ait été inquiété » (Hamé 2010). Un constat qu’illustre tristement la relaxe, après dix ans de procédure judiciaire, des deux policiers poursuivis pour non-assistance à personne en danger suite à la mort de Zyed Benna et Bouna Traoré en 2005<a title="" href="#_ftn24">[24]</a>. À l’époque, celui qui n’était encore que ministre de l’intérieur, Nicolas Sarkozy, porte plainte contre le groupe pour « diffamation publique envers la police nationale » <a title="" href="#_ftn25">[25]</a>. Le procès va durer huit ans, ce qui est assez exceptionnel pour une affaire de ce type : trois relaxes, deux jugements en appel et deux pourvois en cassation. Aucune condamnation donc, malgré l’acharnement du ministère de l’intérieur<a title="" href="#_ftn26">[26]</a>. Alors qu’Hamé aurait pu se retrancher derrière la liberté d’expression, il a choisi de porter le procès sur le plan politique, souhaitant « ouvrir publiquement et politiser un débat jusqu’ici confiné dans la sphère de la recherche universitaire » (Monteiro 2008). C’est la colonialité du pouvoir qu’Hamé souhaitait mettre en accusation devant les tribunaux, comme aucun rappeur avant lui. C’est pourquoi Hamé s’est entouré d’experts –historiens, sociologues, enseignants, activistes etc. –, « en mesure de corroborer et d’étayer [ses] propos » (Acontresens<i> </i>2007).</p>
<p>En amont du procès, l’avocat du rappeur explicitait lui aussi cette ligne de défense en faisant valoir que les témoins-experts allaient l’aider à prouver que « les humiliations policières à répétition font bien partie du quotidien pour un certain nombre de ces jeunes » (Monteiro 2008). La question étant de savoir quels jeunes et sur quels critères : « qui appelez-vous vos &#8220;frères&#8221;, qui semblent se faire trucider en toute impunité ? » demanda ainsi la juge rapporteur durant le procès (Acontresens 2006). Par son agacement, qui transparaît dans la formulation même de la question, la juge rapporteur sommait Hamé de s’expliquer sur ce qu’elle considérait comme un crime de lèse-majesté contre l’universalisme républicain, son supposé communautarisme. Hamé répondit que « frère » était un « terme usuel » qui revêtait une « charge affective » et désignait une « fratrie avec laquelle on peut se trouver des cicatrices et des espoirs communs » (Acontresens 2006). Pas d’essentialisme ni de communautarisme chez Hamé donc, mais plutôt une politique de la coalition<a title="" href="#_ftn27">[27]</a>. Les frères d’Hamé sont tous les individus qui se reconnaîtront des cicatrices et des espoirs communs. Toutes ces cicatrices qu’ « on [leur] a demandé d’oublier », comme ce « 17 Octobre 61 qui croupit au fond de la Seine »<a title="" href="#_ftn28">[28]</a>. Et au-delà, ces espoirs, cette « saleté d’espérance » comme la nomme Rocé<a title="" href="#_ftn29">[29]</a>.</p>
<p>Après huit ans de procès, Hamé sera définitivement acquitté en juin 2010. Plus qu’une histoire de personne, ce procès a été important en cela qu’il a finalement contraint le pouvoir à révéler sa colonialité puisque, ainsi que l’avait noté Hamé, « en nous intentant ce procès on nous signifie qu’on n’est pas autorisé à s’exprimer sur le plan politique » (Monteiro 2008). Récemment, Ekoué et Le Bavar, de La Rumeur, affirmaient dans un entretien ne rien regretter quant à leur engagement politique et postcolonial, allant jusqu’à dire que le procès qui leur avait été intenté « fait partie de l’histoire  de La Rumeur ». Et Ekoué de poursuivre : « on va fêter les 10 ans des émeutes [et] les mecs qui ont fumé Zyed et Bouna, ils sont toujours pas au placard » (Lebonson 2015).</p>
<h2><b>Contraindre au silence les voix dissonantes</b></h2>
<p>Depuis le procès intenté à Hamé et plus encore depuis les émeutes urbaines de 2005, le rap postcolonial est une cible privilégiée des politiques. La plus récente des attaques, toujours en cours au moment où j’écris ces lignes et connue sous le nom de l’ « affaire &#8220;Nique la France&#8221; », a vu Saïdou du groupe ZEP (« Zone d’Expression Populaire ») être mis en examen pour « injure publique » et « provocation à la discrimination, à la haine ou à la violence » pour un ouvrage co-écrit avec le sociologue Saïd Bouamama (lui aussi mis en examen) qui reprenait le titre d’une de ses chansons, « Nique la France ». Un groupe de députés UMP, parmi lesquels Christian Vanneste, celui-là même qui avait fait inscrire l’expression « rôle positif » dans la loi sur la « présence française outre-mer », avait soumis une question écrite au Ministre de la Culture et de la Communication. Je cite ici un passage éclairant, dans lequel ces députés s’interrogent :</p>
<blockquote><p>« [Est-ce qu’il] apparaîtrait opportun [à Saïd Bouamama, sociologue algérien résidant en France] que des écrivains français publient, à titre d’exemple en Algérie, un ouvrage s’inspirant avec délicatesse du titre choisi par Saïd Bouamama mais intitulé, cette fois, &#8220;Nique l’Algérie&#8221; ? »</p></blockquote>
<p>Ces députés semblaient ignorer dans un premier temps que le titre de l’ouvrage ne doit pas tant à Saïd Bouamama qu’au rappeur Saïdou. Mais la question était malgré tout intéressante par ce qu’elle révélait : en admettant que l’on ait le droit d’affirmer de manière provocatrice qu’on « nique la France », qui donc peut se permettre de tenir ce discours ?</p>
<p>Pour les députés, il était évident que même en acceptant que de tels propos puissent être tenus, ils ne pouvaient absolument pas l’être par un « non-national ». Mais plus que cela, il semblait bien qu’étaient visés tous les français « d’origine ». D’ailleurs, lorsque l’AGRIF (« Association Générale contre le Racisme et pour le Respect de l’Identité française et Chrétienne »), association d’extrême droite catholique, porta plainte contre les co-auteurs, elle ne manqua pas de signifier qu’elle traquait en réalité un prétendu « racisme anti-Français ». Et tant pis si Saïdou est lui-même Français. Plus ironique encore, la chanson qui a donné son titre à l’ouvrage n’est pas chantée par Saïdou lui-même. Ce sont des Français, directement identifiés par l’AGRIF et consorts comme tels car « Blancs », qui rappent sur un air de musette :</p>
<ul class="poetry">
<li>« Nique la France, et son passé colonialiste</li>
<li>Ses odeurs, ses relents et ses réflexes paternalistes »<a title="" href="#_ftn30">[30]</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Cette subtilité a visiblement échappé aux différents acteurs dans cette affaire puisque seuls Saïdou et Saïd Bouamama furent poursuivis.</p>
<p>Mais en cherchant à étouffer certaines voix dissonantes par la censure, le pouvoir politique révèle les différents degrés de citoyenneté, selon que l’on soit du bon ou du mauvais côté de la « frontière raciale », faisant ainsi la preuve de ce qu’il cherche à taire. Saïdou notait en 2009 :</p>
<blockquote><p>« Quand tu prends position [sur le « privilège racial blanc en France »] on va te définir comme un arabe issu de l’immigration, pas comme un intellectuel ou un artiste. Alors que si Blanchard [historien – blanc – spécialiste de l’immigration] dit la même chose, tout le monde va dire &#8220;Oui, effectivement, c’est indéniable&#8221; » (Tévanian 2009).</p></blockquote>
<p>Soit une illustration de la citoyenneté à deux niveaux dénoncée par la critique postcoloniale. Malgré tout, même si la judiciarisation du rap postcolonial expose au grand jour la colonialité du pouvoir, il n’en demeure pas moins que ce sont autant d’interdictions de se produire sur scène, de censure et de procédures coûteuses qui s’appliquent sur ceux et celles qui dénoncent non seulement le passé colonialiste de la France, mais aussi son actuelle colonialité.</p>
<h1><b>Conclusion</b></h1>
<p>Dans cet article, j’ai souhaité retracer l’émergence de la critique postcoloniale dans le rap français en montrant à la fois que cette dernière n’a été rendue possible que par un ensemble de facteurs convergents mais aussi qu’elle a contribué, à son niveau, à la mue postcoloniale de la société française. Si une certaine dimension critique quant au passé colonialiste de la France et à son racisme structurel existait déjà dans les premiers albums de rap français, il était encore trop tôt pour parler de rap français postcolonial. C’est la polarisation de la société française autour des débats sur le fait postcolonial qui a rendu possible l’émergence d’une critique postcoloniale dans le rap français. Ainsi, ce n’est réellement qu’à partir des années 2000 qu’un certain nombre d’acteurs vont politiser leur condition minoritaire, plurielle et postcoloniale et dénoncer dans leur parole la continuité des pratiques coloniales qui s’appliquent à leur encontre, ce qui leur vaudra de s’attirer les foudres des sphères politiques et médiatiques. Loin d’être une politique isolée, ces attaques portées contre le rap – et plus encore contre les rappeurs et rappeuses – sont à ranger aux côtés des nombreux débats sur la laïcité (en réalité, sur l’islam), le rôle prétendument positif de la colonisation ou encore le caractère supposé « non intégrable » de certaines populations « issues de l’immigration » ou « de confession musulmane ». La condamnation morale du rap et son exposition judiciaire s’insèrent ainsi dans un dispositif de pouvoir plus large que l’on peut appeler racisme structurel ou colonialité du pouvoir.</p>
<p>Constamment ramenés à leur condition minoritaire, les rappeurs vont entreprendre une politique de réappropriation du stigmate en énonçant des identités culturelles articulées autour de la mémoire de l’esclavage, de la colonisation et de l’immigration. Soient des constructions hybrides, provisoires et mouvantes qui revendiquent un « droit à la différence dans l’égalité » (Balibar, 1997). Leur identité postcoloniale étant la raison de leur assujettissement, ils font de sa reconnaissance une condition <i>sine qua non</i> au vivre ensemble en France. C’est ce qu’exprime Rocé lorsqu’il affirme qu’il chantera la France lorsqu’elle le reconnaîtra « comme être multiple » (Rocé, « Je chante la France », 2006).</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/colonialite-du-pouvoir-postcolonialite-du-rap-lemergence-et-la-repression-dun-rap-francais-structure-autour-de-la-critique-postcoloniale-dans-les-annees-2000/">Colonialité du pouvoir, postcolonialité du rap : l’émergence et la répression d’un rap français structuré autour de la critique postcoloniale dans les années 2000</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>(Alter)Native Lens: Seeing my Sierra Leone like a Postcolony</title>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:22:42 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>“…the upshot is that while we now feel we know nearly everything that African states societies, economies, are not, we still know absolutely nothing about what they actually are…” (Mbembe[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/alternative-lens-seeing-sierra-leone-like-postcolony/">(Alter)Native Lens: Seeing my Sierra Leone like a Postcolony</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p><em>“…the upshot is that while we now feel we know nearly everything that African states societies, economies, <b>are not</b>, we still know absolutely nothing about <b>what they actually are…” </b>(Mbembe 2001:9)</em></p></blockquote>
<h2><b>Introduction</b></h2>
<p>This collection of photographs, taken during recent visits to my native Sierra Leone, are part of a continuing effort to help others see a bit more of the everyday in Africa through my subjective eyes –behind the objective lens of a camera, of course.</p>
<p>The images are not intended to (UN)change anyone’s perceptions of the beautiful, diverse, and vibrant continent of over fifty(50) separate, independent countries that constitute AFRICA.</p>
<p>Such (r)evolutions are best left to western media and (ma)paternalistic observers who continue to distill their (in)versions of Africa.</p>
<p>We, Africans, do not often get the opportunity (or take the time?) to interpret the sights or sounds of our countries, as we see fit, in order to resist the uniform exaggerations of an exotic, faraway place ravaged by poverty, starvation, disease and conflict.</p>
<p>As Mbembe asserts, “… there is language that every comment by an African about Africa must endlessly eradicate, validate, or ignore, often to his/her cost, the ordeal whose erratic fulfillment many Africans have spent their lives trying to prevent…” (Mbembe 2001:5).</p>
<p>Everything takes place within the context or contours of the preceding or existing discourse.</p>
<p>Hopefully, these glimpses do not nullify that greater purpose…</p>
<p>********</p>
<p><em>All photographs courtesy of Fodei Batty</em></p>
<div id="attachment_1902" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-1.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1902" alt="Ships docked at the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in Freetown, Sierra Leone                                              -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-1-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Ships docked at the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in Freetown, Sierra Leone &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>Any Postcolony without a port to exploit its resources is not worthy of its misery</p>
<p>Although the Queen Elizabeth II quay is said to have one of the world’s deepest natural harbors, the presence of such a fine seaport has only expedited the exploitation of Sierra Leone’s natural resources by various multinational mining companies who use its fine services to ship commodities out of the country.</p>
<div id="attachment_1903" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-2.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1903" alt="An Australian’s best friend: Diamonds from Sierra Leone -- Bo, southern Sierra Leone " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-2-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">An Australian’s best friend: Diamonds from Sierra Leone &#8212; Bo, southern Sierra Leone</p></div>
<p>You, too, want a piece of me? An Australia diamond merchant seeks his fortune in the Postcolony.</p>
<div id="attachment_1904" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-3.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1904" alt="Winners of Chinese Language Scholarships at the University of Sierra Leone -- Mount Aureol, Sierra Leone, July 2015 " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-3-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Winners of Chinese Language Scholarships at the University of Sierra Leone &#8212; Mount Aureol, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>From North-South to South-South domination? These students at the University of Sierra Leone were the “lucky few” who won scholarships to study the Chinese language at universities across China. They will be excellent speakers of the Chinese language, for the future.</p>
<div id="attachment_1905" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-4.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1905" alt="Chinese car dealership in Freetown, Sierra Leone -- Lumley, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015 " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-4-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Chinese car dealership in Freetown, Sierra Leone &#8212; Lumley, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>The Great Wall goes South: Chinese car dealership in Freetown</p>
<div id="attachment_1906" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-5.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1906" alt="Chinese merchants in Freetown, Sierra Leone -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015 " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-5-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Chinese merchants in Freetown, Sierra Leone &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>The Chinese are busy in Africa. Here a Chinese expatriate family hangs out in front of their store in Freetown as their employees also lounge rather idly nearby</p>
<div id="attachment_1907" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-6.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1907" alt="On Umbrellas… -- Lumley Market, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-6-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">On Umbrellas… &#8212; Lumley Market, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<div id="attachment_1908" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-7.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1908" alt="…and on Jerry cans: President Obama is the Midas Touch in Sierra Leone -- Construction site, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-7-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">…and on Jerry cans: President Obama is the Midas Touch in Sierra Leone &#8212; Construction site, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>Sierra Leone is a place in search of heroes and inspirational figures. Most Sierra Leoneans tend to look elsewhere because examples of good leadership within the country are rare. Hence, President Obama’s popularity across the country. Everything emblazoned with his name is an instant bestseller. The photograph of an umbrella carrying President Obama’s name next to a woman carrying her wares on her head and his name on a jerrycan are all evidence of the president’s popularity.</p>
<div id="attachment_1909" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-8.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1909" alt="From Virginia to Sierra Leone: With Love?  -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-8-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">From Virginia to Sierra Leone: With Love? &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>A huge market for used cars; you cannot miss America’s finest anywhere you go on the streets of Freetown</p>
<div id="attachment_1910" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-9.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1910" alt="Gifts to the Postcolony: Trojan Horses?  -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-9-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Gifts to the Postcolony: Trojan Horses? &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>A popular sign across the developing world, all USAID-funded projects carry the questionable phrase “from the American People.” This one was stamped on a wall commemorating American support for a project preventing bush fires in the Postcolony.</p>
<div id="attachment_1911" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-10.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1911" alt="Warscapes and Mercedes Benzes in Kenema, Sierra Leone -- Kenema, eastern Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-10-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Warscapes and Mercedes Benzes in Kenema, Sierra Leone &#8212; Kenema, eastern Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>Even though the war ended thirteen years ago, the landscape across Sierra Leone is still littered with the bitter memories of war –warscapes</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div id="attachment_1912" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-11.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1912" alt="Headscratcher: Office of Nuclear Safety, in Sierra Leone? -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-11-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Headscratcher: Office of Nuclear Safety, in Sierra Leone? &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>The postcolony is rife with contradictions. The sign on this building made for one head scratching moment. Nuclear energy in a state that has not found a way to provide sufficient thermal or hydroelectric energy to its people a century after the invention of electricity?</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div id="attachment_1913" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-12.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1913 " alt="The sign on this nearly decrepit building in the heart of Freetown says it all: BE SMART! -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-12-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">The sign on this nearly decrepit building in the heart of Freetown says it all: BE SMART! &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<div>
<div id="attachment_1914" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-13.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1914" alt="Philadelphia Medical Clinic in Sierra Leone: another sign that says it all -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-13-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Philadelphia Medical Clinic in Sierra Leone: another sign that says it all &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<div id="attachment_1915" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-14.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1915" alt="Road Crossing Sign on the street of Freetown -- Lumley, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-14-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Road Crossing Sign on the street of Freetown &#8212; Lumley, Freetown Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>This sign struck me as quite ironic because the constant flow of traffic does not allow children to cross the road safely on this busy street in the west of Freetown.</p>
<div id="attachment_1916" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-15.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1916" alt="Total Domination in/of the Postcolony -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-15-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Total Domination in/of the Postcolony &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2015</p></div>
<p>A Total gas station. Next to residential dwellings…</p>
<div id="attachment_1917" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-16.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1917" alt="The lifestyles of the rich and shameless contrast sharply with others: a mansion in Freetown -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-16-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">The lifestyles of the rich and shameless contrast sharply with others: a mansion in Freetown &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012</p></div>
<p>Hardly do structures such as this make it into the pages of western media. There is, in fact, a direct correlation between the construction of mansions such as this one and the misery of the people. The more mansions rise, the more the misery of the people increases.</p>
<div id="attachment_1919" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-18.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1919" alt="Not a mud hut in sight! Juba Hills, Freetown, Sierra Leone -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012 " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-18-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Not a mud hut in sight! Juba Hills, Freetown, Sierra Leone &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012</p></div>
<p>You see what you want to see in the postcolony. There are mud huts, diseases and poverty galore but there is also what you see above. In some cases, those who live here are responsible for the conditions of those who live where capitalist western media would like to divert your attention.</p>
<div id="attachment_1918" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-17.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1918" alt="More mansions blend into lush foliage around the hills of Freetown -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-17-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">More mansions blend into lush foliage around the hills of Freetown &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012</p></div>
<div id="attachment_1920" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-19.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1920" alt="And then there is this one, also in Freetown, Sierra Leone: Not your average mud hut? -- Freetown, Sierra Leone. April 2007." src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-19-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">And then there is this one, also in Freetown, Sierra Leone: Not your average mud hut? &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone. April 2007.</p></div>
<div id="attachment_1921" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-20.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1921" alt="A street scene in Freetown, Sierra Leone -- Freetown, Sierra Leone. April 2007." src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-20-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">A street scene in Freetown, Sierra Leone &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone. April 2007.</p></div>
<p>There is also the everyday.</p>
<div id="attachment_1922" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-21.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1922" alt="Ingenuity  -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012. " src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-21-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Ingenuity &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, July 2012.</p></div>
<p>Ingenuity is evident everywhere on the streets of Freetown. This is the postcolony, after all.</p>
<div id="attachment_1923" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-22.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1923" alt="In a mud hut in eastern Sierra Leone – November 2006." src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-22-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">In a mud hut in eastern Sierra Leone – November 2006.</p></div>
<p>Perception is not reality. I could choose to show you the above…</p>
<div id="attachment_1924" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-23.jpg"><img class="size-large wp-image-1924" alt="Beautiful sunset along Lumley Beach, Freetown Sierra Leone -- Freetown, Sierra Leone, circa 2007" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Fodei-23-1024x768.jpg" width="622" height="466" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">Beautiful sunset along Lumley Beach, Freetown Sierra Leone &#8212; Freetown, Sierra Leone, circa 2007</p></div>
<p>…this beautiful sunset</p>
<p>*****</p>
<p>So, you see? My photographs have just played tricks on you by showing you the AFRICA that I want to show you! Perception is not reality…</p>
</div>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/alternative-lens-seeing-sierra-leone-like-postcolony/">(Alter)Native Lens: Seeing my Sierra Leone like a Postcolony</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Represión, persecución y estrategia de lucha del independentismo puertorriqueño</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/arts/represion-persecucion-y-estrategia-de-lucha-del-independentismo-puertorriqueno/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:22:34 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>En octubre del 2001, publicamos un estudio lexicográfico sobre la penetración del español americano en la lengua italiana contemporánea. En el léxico estudiado, se documenta la “crónica” de los últimos[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/represion-persecucion-y-estrategia-de-lucha-del-independentismo-puertorriqueno/">Represión, persecución y estrategia de lucha del independentismo puertorriqueño</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>En octubre del 2001, publicamos un estudio lexicográfico sobre la penetración del español americano en la lengua italiana contemporánea. En el léxico estudiado, se documenta la “crónica” de los últimos cincuenta años del Siglo XX en América Latina; sobre todo el periodo  dramático de los conflictos político-militares en nuestro continente (v. <i><a href="http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/4817880" target="_blank">América Latina aportes léxicos al italiano contemporáneo</a>)</i>.</p>
<p>Ya motivados por dicho estudio, nos interesamos mucho más por el léxico de la política puertorriqueña, en especial, las innovaciones léxicas en cada cuatrienio electoral. Iniciamos, entonces, la recopilación de artículos periodísticos relacionados con dicho tema y en 1984 nos sorprendió la creatividad lingüística en esas elecciones. Para citar un ejemplo simple pensemos en el fenómeno del <b>melonismo</b> o más específicamente el <b>voto melón:</b> Se dice del elector afiliado al Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño (PIP), pero que vota por el Partido Popular Democrático (PPD) para detener la ofensiva anexionista. Se le compara con esta fruta, porque es verde por afuera (color que identifica al PIP) asimismo rojo por dentro (color con el cual se reconoce el PPD).</p>
<p>Otro ejemplo emblemático es <b> cangrimán. </b>Voz con la cual fueron conocidos un grupo de congresistas estadounidenses que visitaron el País en 1910. Los isleños los llamaron “cangrimanes” por confusión con el inglés “congressman”. En la propaganda política de las elecciones 2004, vuelve a utilizarse el término (Véase el discurso  <i>Ante el engaño y represión, dignidad  y perseverancia</i>, Rubén Berríos).</p>
<p>Aclaramos, antes de pasar al análisis léxico-político, que algunas voces se apartan del tema seleccionado en el título del ensayo: represión, persecución y estrategia de lucha. Las hemos incluido ya que nos parece pertinente por la alta frecuencia de uso y por la trascendencia adquirida en la realidad puertorriqueña.</p>
<p>Sin más preámbulos, recordemos que “tutte le parole possono  diventare termini politici , se sono usate in una situazione politica ” (Maurizio Dardano1981:150).</p>
<p><b>abstencionismo.</b> Práctica de abstención en el proceso electoral. En algunos partidos y agrupaciones de izquierda, el <b>a. </b>es una forma de protesta al status quo. Puede utilizarse en relación a otras actividades políticas no eleccionarias.</p>
<p><b>activista comunitario</b>. Oscar López Rivera, el <b>a. c. </b>que el 29 de mayo de 2015, cumplió 34 años de prisión en cárceles estadounidenses;  por el único delito de luchar por la independencia de su País. Oscar, después de su experiencia militar en Vietnam, se convirtió en un luchador muy activo en las comunidades puertorriqueñas  de la metrópolis. En 1981, fue acusado por ser miembro de una organización militar clandestina  independentista. Condenado por ello a 55 años por conspiración terrorista , aún permanece en  prisión.  En estos momentos, es el prisionero político más antiguo del hemisferio occidental. Pero, diversos sectores del pueblo puertorriqueño han emprendido una campaña nacional e internacional por su excarcelación: Se pide el indulto al Presidente Obama.</p>
<p><b>albizuismo</b>. Ideología y estrategia política-revolucionaria seguida por  Pedro Albizu Campos  y los afiliados al Partido Nacionalista Puertorriqueño en el periodo de 1930 a 1950.</p>
<p><b>amordazar</b>. (De mordaza). Silenciar o reprimir con violencia actuaciones políticas o sociales en que se usen los símbolos de la Patria. Impedir hablar o expresarse libremente a todas las voces independentistas o nacionalistas del País.</p>
<p><b>anexionismo criollo</b>. Asimilación e integración (como estado 51) a la federación norteamericana que postulan los simpatizantes del Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP).  El <b>a. c. </b>propone, además, la preservación de nuestro idioma, cultura e identidad puertorriqueña, los cuales no están sujetos a negociación. En las elecciones de 2004 y 2008, el adjetivo “criollo” fue perdiendo vigencia.</p>
<p><b>asimilismo colonial.</b> Tendencia política que pretende destruir o sustituir la identidad cultural puertorriqueña por la estadounidense.</p>
<p><b>antimilitarismo.</b> Oposición a la presencia y al programa militar obligatorio del  ROTC (Reserve Officers Training Course) en las instituciones universitarias del País. Como consecuencia de esta lucha decenas de estudiantes fueron expulsados y suspendidos de sus estudios. Hoy día el ROTC se establece fuera del campus universitario y se ofrece como curso electivo o voluntario.</p>
<p><b>asistencialismo.</b> Se dice de la dependencia económica impuesta a las masas populares y otros en esta economía colonial  (v. también mentalidad cuponera).</p>
<p><b>boricua mutante. </b>Dicho de una persona que sufre mutación de identidad. Que por su vehemente y absoluta lealtad al sistema y a la nación norteamericana se aleja de sus raíces; por tanto su sello de identidad tiene muy pocas huellas de puertorriqueñidad  (Juan Mari Brás), (v. también <b>pitiyanqui</b>).</p>
<p><b>cacería de brujas. </b>Locución que se acuñó para describir la persecución y represión de todo aquél que resultara sospechoso de preferir la independencia. Como consecuencia de dicha cacería<b>, “</b>los candidatos para puestos políticos  se removían a tenor con las reglamentaciones federales. Liberales prominentes, entre los que se contaba Jorge Font Saldaña… , fueron obligados a  abandonar sus cargos por  haber establecido un pequeño grupo con el nombre de Renovación” (Thomas Mathews 1975:266).</p>
<p><b>cadete de la República. </b>Perteneciente o militante del nacionalismo albizuista. Vestían de negro y recibían un entrenamiento militar.</p>
<p><b>carpeta</b>. Nominativo con el cual se conoció la práctica del gobierno y la policía de Puerto Rico de crear expedientes a todo aquel ciudadano que por su afiliación o creencias políticas de izquierda se consideraba subversivo. El Tribunal Supremo de la Isla declaró ilegal e inconstitucional tal práctica, pero “la decisión del Tribunal no alcanzó a las agencias investigativas de los EE. UU. en Puerto Rico. En consecuencia, los actos ilegales del FBI y sus colaboradores continúan  impunes” (Luis Nieves Falcón 2009:197).</p>
<p><b>Cerro Maravilla. </b>El asesinato de los jóvenes Arnaldo Darío Rosado y Carlos Soto Arriví en el <b>C.M. </b>el 25 de julio de 1978, “fue un acto provocado y ejecutado por la policía de Puerto Rico, sin que mediara justa causa y con la intención específica de quitarles la vida. El crimen de Cerro Maravilla fue planificado por miembros de la policía, quienes tomaron la decisión de dar muerte a los jóvenes por la única razón de que éstos fueron vinculados a actividades relacionadas con el movimiento independentista en la Isla” (Nieves Falcón 2009: 158-159).</p>
<p><b>Claridad. </b>Esta publicación – un pequeño boletín &#8211;  aparece en la realidad política de la Isla en 1959. Empieza en forma muy artesanal, esto es, hecho en un mimeógrafo. Se inicia por acuerdo del Comité Organizador del Movimiento Pro- Independencia, y sus fundadores fueron dos grandes de la lucha independentista: César Andreu Iglesias y Juan Mari Brás.</p>
<p>En su primer aniversario, y no obstante las dificultades iniciales, se convirtió en la voz del independentismo tanto en Puerto Rico como en Estados Unidos. Por miles razones, no pudo seguir publicándose diariamente, y en los años setenta se convirtió en semanario.  Recuérdese los intentos que se hicieron para eliminarlo. Pero, Claridad sobrevivió y actualmente es valorizado como “El Periódico de la Nación Puertorriqueña” (v. Paralitici 2004:190;  Mari Brás 2006:135-138).</p>
<p><b>colonialismo puertorriqueñista. </b>Estrategia de dominación impuesta al colonizado. Consiste ésta en reconocerle su identidad latina, así como idioma, bandera y otros símbolos patrios (Véase el ensayo crítico <i>Posmodernos, neomelones y neoconservadores: respuesta a Carlos Pabón, </i>Ramón Grosfoguel).</p>
<p><b>colonialismo “light”. </b>Se dice de los sectores del Partido Popular Democrático que en pro de la derrota del Partido Nuevo Progresista piden a todos los independentistas el <b>voto melón</b>. Este sector desea mantener el status quo colonial  (Estado Libre Asociado) o la Libre Asociación Soberana permanentemente, pero exigirán a la metrópolis más autonomía.</p>
<p><b>confusión permanente. </b>Frase acuñada por Rubén Berríos para describir el sistema colonial del País: dos banderas, dos himnos. Sin embargo, el pueblo escogió curiosamente otros dos himnos: <i>Preciosa  </i>de Rafael Hernández  y  <i>Verde Luz </i> de Antonio Cabán (El Topo).  Esto es evidente en las actividades deportivas y músico-culturales.</p>
<p><b>diáspora boricua. </b>Se dice de los tres y medio  o  cuatro millones de  residentes de origen puertorriqueño establecidos en Estados Unidos. También son conocidos como los nuyoricans o niuyoricans;  indiferentemente del estado donde residan.</p>
<p><b>espanglish</b>. La lengua creada por la diáspora boricua como identidad y signo de resistencia.</p>
<p><b>espionaje doméstico. </b>Dicho del control que ejercen las agencias federales en la Isla: FBI, CIA  y sus colaboradores.</p>
<p><b>estadidad jíbara. </b>Sintagma nominal creado por el ex gobernador de  Puerto Rico Luis A. Ferré  en las elecciones de 1976. En las elecciones de 2004 y 2008, el  adjetivo “jíbara” pierde  vigencia (v. también <b>anexionismo criollo</b>).</p>
<p><b>Frente Puertorriqueñista. </b>Coalición  constituida por sectores independentistas y autonomistas para detener la amenaza del anexionismo: evidente ésta en el triunfo electoral del PNP en 1968 y 1976.</p>
<p><b>Gran Jurado.  </b>La institución del <b>G. J.</b> tiene su origen en Gran Bretaña. Trasladada  a  Estados Unidos, y después de la independencia , se incluyó dentro de la Quinta Enmienda de la Constitución. “En Puerto Rico …, se  ha utilizado principalmente contra el independentismo desde la década del treinta, cuando Juan Antonio Corretjer fue encarcelado por un año por negarse a entregar documentos del Partido Nacionalista  en 1936” ( Paralitici 2004: 362).</p>
<p><b>Grito de Lares. </b>La conmemoración  del <b> </b>Grito de Lares -<b> </b>23 de septiembre del 1868 contra el imperio español &#8211; fue y sigue siendo una ingeniosa táctica que ayudó  a crear continuidad en la lucha por la independencia. Fue el Partido Nacionalista y Albizu Campos quienes iniciaron esta conmemoración.</p>
<p><b>hoyo. </b>Práctica punitiva en la cárcel federal por parte de la Marina de Guerra  de EE. UU. en Vieques. Consistía en “aislar al preso en una cárcel pequeña y solitaria para castigar aún más los desobedientes  civiles” (Nieves Falcón 2009:203).</p>
<p><b>indulto incondicional. </b> Acción mediante la cual se libera a un prisionero antes de cumplir su condena, sin que esta liberación esté sujeta a reglas específicas. El <b>i. inc. </b>fue otorgado, en septiembre 1979, a cinco miembros del  Partido Nacionalista Puertorriqueño: Lolita Lebrón, Rafael Cancel Miranda, Andrés Figueroa, Irving Flores Rodríguez  y Oscar Collazo. Los nacionalistas habían cumplido una larga condena a raíz del ataque, por ellos perpetrado, al Congreso de los Estados Unidos y la Casa Blair en los años cincuenta.</p>
<p><b>jaibería. </b>Se dice de “la estrategia existencial  para sobrevivir  en una situación de dependencia y marginación” (Juan M. García Passalacqua 1993: 58).</p>
<p><b>jaula de perro. </b>Práctica punitiva de la Marina de Guerra de Estados Unidos en Vieques. Los desobedientes civiles “fueron encerrados, por largas horas, en jaulas malolientes, con espacios reducidos, sin techos, divididos o separados por verjas de alambre eslabonado” (Nieves Falcón 2009: 202).</p>
<p><b>Ley de cabotaje.</b> Ordenanza mediante la cual Puerto Rico está obligado a utilizar (para su comercio) barcos de matrícula y construcción estadounidense, los más caros del Mundo.</p>
<p><b>Ley de Comercio Interestatal. </b>Obstáculo colonial al desarrollo económico nacional, por virtud  de  ésta los centros comerciales se pueden establecer en cualquier lugar. Esta realidad colonial ha provocado la quiebra y desaparición del pequeño y mediano comerciante nativo, ya establecido en zona. Ejemplo fehaciente actual es la lucha de las farmacias de la comunidad  para poder sobrevivir.</p>
<p><b>Ley Jones </b>(Acta). Política de dominación emprendida por el gobierno norteamericano en 1917: imposición del inglés como idioma único en el sistema educativo, imposición de la ciudadanía y del servicio militar obligatorio.</p>
<p><b>Ley de la Mordaza.</b> El 21 de mayo de 1948, la Legislatura de Puerto Rico aprobó la ley de la Mordaza, cuyo propósito principal fue silenciar las voces independentistas y nacionalistas. Al amparo de esta legislación se persiguió toda expresión independentista y de afirmación nacional; se encarceló a cientos de puertorriqueños.</p>
<p><b>Ley 600. </b>Autorización otorgada  a Puerto Rico – por el Congreso de los Estados Unidos &#8211; para redactar su propia constitución. Ésta debía estar dentro del ámbito de las leyes de los Estados Unidos.</p>
<p><b>Ley Servicio Militar Obligatorio. </b>El 18 de mayo de 1917, el Congreso de los EE. UU. impone (a los jóvenes puertorriqueños de 18 años) la ley de <b>S. M.O.</b>, mediante la cual fueron obligados a servir en el ejército de los Estados Unidos so pena de encarcelamiento. Esta ley fue abolida después de la guerra de Vietnam.</p>
<p><b>Ley 7. </b>Ley especial sobre emergencia fiscal en Puerto Rico del 9 de marzo de 2009. Fueron despedidos 30,000 empleados públicos bajo la gobernación del Partido Nuevo Progresista.</p>
<p><b>macheteros </b>(los). Nombre oficial Ejército Popular Boricua- Macheteros (EPBM). Organización militar clandestina creada en los años ochenta. Su área de acción  fue tanto contra el sistema político y militar estadounidense en Puerto Rico como en cualquier territorio de Estado Unidos. Se ignora el destino de esta organización después del asesinato de su líder Filiberto Ojeda Ríos, por el operativo del FBI y la policía de Puerto Rico en 2005.</p>
<p><b>Marcha de la Dignidad. </b>Marcha de protesta de los populares (los afiliados al PPD) e independentistas para repudiar la intervención de la Corte Federal en el proceso electoral de la Isla en 2004.</p>
<p><b>Masacre de Ponce. </b>Nombre con el que  se conoció la masacre de un grupo de nacionalistas desarmados, los cuales celebraban una manifestación política el 21 de marzo de 1937. Como consecuencia murieron 25 personas y más de 150 resultaron heridas.</p>
<p><b>melonismo. </b>(De melón). Tendencia en el proceso electoral de 1984 seguida por los independentistas y socialistas  a favor del PPD. Consistía ésta en prestar sus respectivos votos a dicho partido para así detener la avanzada de la estadidad.<b> </b>Estos electores ideológicamente continuaban comprometidos con la independencia.</p>
<p><b>mentalidad cuponera. </b>Se dice de la dependencia económica impuesta a las masas populares en este sistema colonial, la cual ha traído enajenación e impotencia para luchar y mejorar su nivel económico y social.</p>
<p><b>Monoestrellada.</b> La bandera nacional de Puerto Rico. Fue creada en 1895 por un grupo de independentistas exiliados en la ciudad de New York. Invertido los colores es idéntica a la bandera cubana. Es el símbolo más amado  y el que nos representa en nuestra soberanía deportiva.</p>
<p><b>Movimiento Pro- Independencia </b>(MPI). Organización  no- partidista, y una de las fuerzas políticas independentistas más influyentes  en el País a finales de los años cincuenta. Evoluciona con el tiempo y se convierte en el Nuevo Movimiento Independentista Puertorriqueño.</p>
<p><b>Movimiento Independentista Puertorriqueño </b>(<b>Nuevo). </b>Surge como una nueva gran casa independentista. Pero, “la dispersión fue tal que ese mismo año se convoca a otro encuentro amplio del independentismo  con miras a aglutinarlo”. Se crea, entonces, el Congreso Nacional  Hostosiano (CNH). Es la reunión de todos los sectores del independentismo, con excepción del PIP (Jorge Farinacci 2004).</p>
<p><b>Movimiento Independentista Nacional Hostosiano </b>(MINH). Nueva fusión de los proyectos políticos anteriores (MPI, NMIP,CNH). Actualmente es un organismo amplio policlasista, no partidista  y más unido al Partido Popular Democrático (Véase el ensayo <i>Se organiza el Reformismo melonista</i>, Jorge Farinacci).</p>
<p><b>neonacionalismo criollo. </b>Nueva ideología puerorriqueñista que apoya la alianza de los independentistas  y socialistas con el PPD. Como se ha dicho , el <b>n. c. </b>es en su vertiente política melonista (v. Grosfoguel 2003:37).</p>
<p><b>pitiyanqui </b>o <b>pitiyanki. </b>(Del fr. petit y del inglés yanki). Persona que admira e imita todo lo norteamericano. Partidario fanático de la estadidad. Esta voz fue creada por el poeta puertorriqueño Luis Lloréns Torres (1878- 1944).</p>
<p><b>pivazo</b>. Voto emitido por un sector del  independentismo en las elecciones del 2004. En las papeletas del <b>p., </b>aparecían dos cruces: una debajo de la insignia del PIP y otra al lado del nombre del candidato a la gobernación del PPD.</p>
<p><b>Proyecto Tydings. </b>Proyecto de independencia para  Puerto Rico propuesto por M. Tydings al Congreso de Estados Unidos. Se consideraba como un castigo a los puertorriqueños, por el auge alcanzado por los independentistas y nacionalistas en la década del treinta (v. Mathews 1975: 254- 258).</p>
<p><b>puertorriqueñizar. </b>Dar forma puertorriqueña a un vocablo o expresión de otro idioma, especialmente del inglés norteamericano . Introducir elementos puertorriqueños en los arreglos musicales afrocaribeños.</p>
<p><b>purga. </b>Acción con la cual se conoció la destitución de maestros y profesores puertorriqueños opositores al programa de americanización en el sistema educativo del País en los años treinta. El despido que ocasionó mayor protesta fue el de Inés Mendoza, profesora de español y luego esposa del primer gobernador elegido por el pueblo: Luis Muñoz Marín.</p>
<p><b>Revuelta Nacionalista. </b>Se inicia probablemente en octubre de 1950, ya que “el directivo militar del Partido Nacionalista, parece que había dado orden de empezarla en ocho pueblos del País. Se inicia formalmente en la residencia de Blanca Canales, en el Barrio de Coabey, donde se decide tomar el cuartel de la policía de Jayuya, y junto a otros nacionalistas ocupan el pueblo y declaran la República de Puerto Rico. Pero, al otro día 31 de octubre de 1950, Jayuya es bombardeada …”  (Nieves Falcón 2009: 120-121).</p>
<p><b>sedicioso </b>(terrorista). Dicho del liderato nacionalista “encarcelado por <b>s. </b>y desterrado a cumplir largas condenas en cárceles norteamericanas “(Nieves Farcón 2009: 69).</p>
<p><b>Vieques. </b>Isla-municipio puertorriqueña  que &#8211; después de 60 años de bombardeos – logró sacar de su territorio  la Marina de Guerra de los Estados Unidos. Con la participación de los pescadores viequenses, de diversos sectores de la sociedad puertorriqueña, la diáspora boricua y otros ciudadanos extranjeros se logró (a través de la desobediencia civil) impedir los ejercicios bélicos. No obstante los actos punitivos a los que fueron sometidos los desobedientes civiles, la Marina de Guerra tuvo que abandonar el territorio viequense en mayo de 2003. Pero dejó graves daños, por ello se le exige la rehabilitación  ecológica de las tierras y playas.</p>
<p><b>voto melón. </b>Elector independentista que presta el voto.  Llámese también voto derrotista, voto flotante, o voto periférico.</p>
<p><b>zona restringida</b>. Se prohíbe la entrada, so pena de encarcelamiento en la zona de prácticas bélicas de la Marina de Guerra norteamericana.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/represion-persecucion-y-estrategia-de-lucha-del-independentismo-puertorriqueno/">Represión, persecución y estrategia de lucha del independentismo puertorriqueño</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Mother Tongue (Poetry)</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/uncategorized/mother-tongue-poetry/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/uncategorized/mother-tongue-poetry/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:22:17 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Poetry]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://postcolonialist.com/?p=1893</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>As if it is the same thing As milk from her breasts. As if it is something which flows secretly Between us like a memory Growing deeper as it vanishes.[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/uncategorized/mother-tongue-poetry/">Mother Tongue (Poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<ul class="poetry">
<li>As if it is the same thing</li>
<li>As milk from her breasts.</li>
<li>As if it is something which flows secretly</li>
<li>Between us like a memory</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">Growing deeper as it vanishes.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Other people of my terrified childhood</li>
<li>Have come and left with momentary hands</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">And receding eyes in my mother tongue.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Elders with cavities in the heart</li>
<li>Poured their love like saliva.</li>
<li>It is difficult to wash away their sticky memory</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">From my mother tongue.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Father was a shadow from door to door</li>
<li>In my mother tongue.</li>
<li>His voice of stern hands and hurried blood</li>
<li>Was different from mother’s voice of rice and barley</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">During many illnesses.</li>
<li></li>
<li>The language of friends in my mother tongue</li>
<li>Is a story where I learnt about my past.</li>
<li>The story of stolen guavas of toppled kingdoms</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">Forest fires, puberty and heroic love.</li>
<li></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">I grew up mostly away from my mother tongue.</li>
<li></li>
<li>I stepped out of the house to know streets and loves</li>
<li>Outside the lullabies of my mother tongue.</li>
<li>I fell in love with melodies and eyes from other languages.</li>
<li>The smell of strangers swayed in the air</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">Between suspicion and love.</li>
<li></li>
<li>My mother allowed me to bring home</li>
<li>Other languages with their bottomless snares.</li>
<li>I grew many vices from them behind my mother’s back</li>
<li>But she could always squeeze out the story</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">From my shadow.</li>
<li></li>
<li>I do not know the story of my mother tongue</li>
<li>Before I was born. Maybe she fell in love with strangers</li>
<li>From other languages like I did. Maybe that is how</li>
<li>She brought in new words to her tongue</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">And lost some of her own.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Maybe she wanted to run away from home</li>
<li>The morning she had gone to pick flowers</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">For treacherous gods.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Maybe that morning she wanted to change</li>
<li>Into a language of flowers that get stolen from gardens</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">But never reach the altar.</li>
<li></li>
<li>The story of my mother tongue</li>
<li>Goes as far back as Kunti<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>.</li>
<li>She alone held the secret of the four men</li>
<li>Who gave birth to her sons.</li>
<li>Her silence gave birth to a mythology.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">Her secret is however part of my mother tongue.</li>
<li></li>
<li>You speak of the mother tongue as if some tongue</li>
<li>Has been fixed into someone’s mouth like a tattoo.</li>
<li>What always stuck on my mother’s tongue</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">Would be stains of slaked lime and catechu.</li>
<li></li>
<li>You who speak of the mother tongue</li>
<li>Like law-makers of the fictional history of lives</li>
<li>And the yellow grammar book do not ask me</li>
<li>What my mother tongue is but rather ask</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">How is my mother tongue</li>
<li></li>
<li>And I would tell you how my mother tongue</li>
<li>Is a jar of pickles preserved under a rotten shade.</li>
<li>I would tell you how my mother tongue</li>
<li>Like the dark side of the moon hides from my daily life</li>
<li>Like medicines in the cupboard.</li>
<li>I would tell you how her speech and her eyes</li>
<li>Have lost each other’s company.</li>
<li>I would tell you how she tends to flower trees</li>
<li>In the absence of her children</li>
<li>And still has tears for old songs of love.</li>
<li>I will tell you how her unsteady feet</li>
<li>Still manage to hold her heart.</li>
<li>I would tell you how her tongue bore lives</li>
<li>Of different names as she became daughter wife</li>
<li>And mother with no time to decide how</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">She would like to be as a woman.</li>
<li></li>
<li>My mother tongue was never allowed</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">To <i>become</i> a woman.</li>
<li></li>
<li>To name our tongue in the name of</li>
<li>Her motherhood</li>
<li>Is a conspiracy to turn her speech into milk</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 15px;">And suckle her dry.</li>
<li></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: left;"><b> </b></p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/uncategorized/mother-tongue-poetry/">Mother Tongue (Poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Excitable Speech and the Politics of the Womb &#8211; Wake Up Grrrl!</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/excitable-speech-politics-womb-wake-grrrl/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/excitable-speech-politics-womb-wake-grrrl/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:22:07 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Academic Journal: Summer 2015 (Issue: Vol. 3, Number 1)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Global Perspectives]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Women's Rights]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>A global  ‘War on Terror’ is being waged against women’s rights.[1] A rancid war waged on a historically notorious terrain of gendered, asymmetrical power relations.  A battle of bugle calls[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/excitable-speech-politics-womb-wake-grrrl/">Excitable Speech and the Politics of the Womb &#8211; Wake Up Grrrl!</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>A global  ‘War on Terror’ is being waged against women’s rights.<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> A rancid war waged on a historically notorious terrain of gendered, asymmetrical power relations.  A battle of bugle calls trumpeting forceful state practices of veiling and unveiling the face of a woman.<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> In this continuous onslaught, we are informed of such things as proposed mandatory ‘virginity tests’ in Indonesia to be passed by young women seeking to graduate from high school.<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> This conjunction of women’s war and the War on Terror now compels me to listen.</p>
<p>I, as a student of international relations, occasionally read some texts by feminist scholars critiquing discourses of ‘sex and death in the rational world of defense intellectuals.’<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>  The ‘Wake Up!’ call issued by feminists to fellow academics in a world that is changing helped articulate fresh insights into a stagnant discipline stifling with boredom and shallowness.<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> As a graduate student I attended a workshop where a professor very confidently proclaimed ‘feminism is dead.’ Several years later, this same professor came out with a book<i> Fast Feminism.</i><a title="" href="#_ftn6">[6]</a>  I, on the other hand, was slow to engage with questions, history and practices of feminism. I am no ‘fast feminist,’ described as a ‘gender risk taker going the distance with her body.’<a title="" href="#_ftn7">[7]</a>  I am perhaps more of a novice caught up with the ‘pure intensity’ of time.<a title="" href="#_ftn8">[8]</a>  A time in which I wish to re-issue a wake up call with the forceful ‘intensity and movement’ of ‘fast feminism’ proposed by Shannon Bell.<a title="" href="#_ftn9">[9]</a></p>
<p>Fast Feminism is an accidental but lively ‘Grrrl’ child representative of feminism and hypermasculinity.<a title="" href="#_ftn10">[10]</a>  It is a coupling together of the material body with speed, to ‘queer’ the gaze, destabilize and recode ‘how we look at bodies and sexual acts’.<a title="" href="#_ftn11">[11]</a> It is a ‘high speed exercise’ that ‘propels you through locations’ and is critical of practices that seek to curb ‘the naughty, kick-ass, confident, loud-assertive, active, curious, prepubescent, joy-for-life tendencies that have been toned down, repressed and castrated in turning woman.’<a title="" href="#_ftn12">[12]</a></p>
<p>This ‘high speed’ exercise of fast feminism is painfully conscious of the violence endured by the positioning of a female body for political purposes. It carries within it a ‘Grrrl’ child’s sense of bemusement and is watchful of tendencies that ‘morph’ into a desire for an alternative.<a title="" href="#_ftn13">[13]</a> The dynamism of fast feminism and its ‘Grrrl’ energy are now redeployed to issue a wake up call in international relations. This wake up call proclaimed, ‘rape as a weapon of war’ with fierce intensity and immediately captured the imagination of academics, activists and policy-makers.<a title="" href="#_ftn14">[14]</a>  Fast feminism responds to this call not simply as a fight with men but rather with fighting injustices.<a title="" href="#_ftn15">[15]</a></p>
<p>In situations of armed conflict, rape as a weapon of war generates immense human suffering. In some conflicts women have been raped repeatedly until pregnant and then these pregnant women were held in captivity until abortion was no longer possible.<a title="" href="#_ftn16">[16]</a> The ‘new wars’ or ‘ethnic conflicts’ waged in Rwanda, Liberia, the former Yugoslavia and other places generated concern regarding religious commitments and military tactics of using the womb to wage a political struggle. These new wars refuted old arguments of rape as a ‘side-effect’ of war and compelled recognition of the fact that ‘Rape, is literally, a weapon of war.’<a title="" href="#_ftn17">[17]</a> It is further argued that rape is a ‘bio-political strategy’ deployed to ‘stamp directly on the body’ a mark of ‘sovereignty’<a title="" href="#_ftn18">[18]</a>. Diken and Lausten suggest, ‘the penetration of a woman’s body works as a metaphor for the penetration of enemy lines.’<a title="" href="#_ftn19">[19]</a></p>
<p>This understanding of rape as a weapon of war is imperative to grasp the politics of the womb. In the politics of the womb, excitable speech works always in feverish anticipation of the penetration of enemy lines and exhorts women to bear more children to safeguard the freedom of the nation and the state. While ‘rape’ is viewed as an instrument, the ‘politics of the womb’ requires the skillful art of watching a caterpillar weaving an intricate cocoon. The politics of the womb is interested in understanding the manipulation of a woman’s reproductive rights for political purposes. These practices of manipulation have a long global history that demands careful deciphering and codification of this particular form of violence endured by women.<a title="" href="#_ftn20">[20]</a> This paper undertakes this exercise by focusing on some contemporary developments in an effort to light a candle of watchful vigilance against this continuous struggle.</p>
<p>The active voice of the victim of rape is encouraged by feminists in order to articulate her experiences of rape and the difficult choices that unwanted pregnancies unexpectedly force upon her. The repeated attempt here is at ‘flipping the obscenity of “distilled perceptions”’ through the verbalization of feelings of guilt, shame and trauma experienced by these women.<a title="" href="#_ftn21">[21]</a> But these expressions do not seem to hinder or halt the continued drama of the politics of the womb. It is a drama enacted everyday in many iterations: in the form of ridicule hurled against the veiled woman, the ‘scientific’ engagement with the idea of ‘immaculate conception’ and then the vainglorious attempts of paying homage to women’s reincarnations in the form of saints and Goddesses.</p>
<p>But the voice of a woman, even a raped woman, does not seem to register among those whipping up religious and sectarian fervor. Feminists have long been aware of ‘how communalism, operating within patriarchal structure of power, often implies the advocacy of sexual violence towards women.’<a title="" href="#_ftn22">[22]</a> The nevertheless fragile voices of feminists are in a fierce contest with other authoritative voices that carry their influence in as much as ‘rape pollution aims to strengthen a patriarchal structure.’<a title="" href="#_ftn23">[23]</a> These authoritarian voices persist in exercising their authority over a woman’s womb. They insist on telling women that they must bear more children to maintain the majority status of a particular religious community.</p>
<p>The strategic purchase of religious, communal mobilization to fuel ethnic riots and sexual violence against women has long been registered in the subcontinent of South Asia.<a title="" href="#_ftn24">[24]</a> But despite this long history of violence, India, the second most populous country in the world, has recently witnessed a spate of statements issued by male political and religious leaders (even from those sitting in jail) advising women on how many children to bear to help maintain or change the demographics of a particular local area or the nation.</p>
<p>Mohammed Qasim, a Muslim separatist leader in India, urges the male members of his community to ‘marry more than once’, and to ‘have as many children as possible.’<a title="" href="#_ftn25">[25]</a> He justifies his argument by resorting to the Quran to make a claim, ‘The Quranic tenet on justice between wives is only in providing equal provision and not inclination of the heart.’<a title="" href="#_ftn26">[26]</a> Justice is to be meted out only by the male members of the Muslim community to their women in the respectable guise of marriage. Any consideration of birth control measures, women’s health issues and economic considerations that factor into make choices about carrying a child are dismissed as nonsensical or irrelevant. Anyone unwilling to share this burden is decried for undermining the strength and future of this community in India.</p>
<p>Similarly a Hindu religious leader and Member of Parliament, Sakshi Maharaj, stipulates in categorical terms, ‘ A Hindu woman must have at least four children’ and that she must give one to the army and the others to religious leaders like himself.<a title="" href="#_ftn27">[27]</a> This proclamation not only shows the temerity of demanding a particular number of children from a woman but also presupposes her willingness to sacrifice her children at the altar of the state and religious leaders as a matter of duty! These outrageous statements publicized by the media unfortunately gain much visibility and voice in society. There is scarcely any resistance or alternative presented to these demands.</p>
<p>On the contrary, there is much support for a political party that has come to power thumping its chest championing nationalism. In this understanding of patriotic and patriarchal nationalism, not a single opportunity is to be missed in reminding the ‘educated and enlightened new woman’ of her responsibility to ‘act as guardians of national culture, indigenous religion and family traditions—in other words to be both “modern” and “traditional.”’<a title="" href="#_ftn28">[28]</a> A political party can slap a show cause notice on Sakshi Maharaj, its representative, and urge restraint as it damages the image of the party.<a title="" href="#_ftn29">[29]</a> But the portrayal of a subservient woman, and the community’s subsequent expectation from her <i>as a woman</i> carrying the seeds of a (national) family within her is not to be decried.</p>
<p>This political rhetoric reduces the body of a woman to the status of a kickball tossed between communities and conversations. These conversations, especially among the educated middle class cosmopolitan contingent, are first encouraged with  a look of disbelief, followed by indifference, and then are silenced. There is a quiet assertion to the effect  of ‘Indian women can no longer be taken for a ride. They are much aware and capable of taking their own decisions.’<a title="" href="#_ftn30">[30]</a> Yet, are they? Which Indian women? Surely if nothing else the statements issued by the leaders of these communities have made it abundantly clear that there are no homogenized Indian women. Their divisive appeals, made on sectarian grounds, play upon the religious differences among women. Their appeals also take note of the cloaks of socio-economic class differences that shroud the world of these women from each other, and at times pit them against one another.</p>
<p>The unifying image of <i>Mother India</i> invoked in a classic Bollywood film served its purpose in representing a woman’s sacrifice and suffering to evoke emotions helpful in consolidating and stabilizing a state structure. It did not necessarily generate conditions of authentic respect and security for women.  Respect for a woman’s autonomy unravels as soon as she steps out of her home and, due to economic necessity, tries to make use of the public transport system. She becomes the victim of six men that abuse her physically and psychologically, and assault her with an iron rod that is left as a memento of their willful act of barbarity inside her body.<a title="" href="#_ftn31">[31]</a>  The victim died as a result of her catastrophic wounds. The voices of women are now hoarse shouting in anger and frustration making stringent, vocal demands. Nothing less than a ‘death-sentence’ is demanded to punish the perpetrators of the crime, even if one of them is a minor.</p>
<p>This 2012 ‘rape that shocked the world’ and became the pet project of domestic and international media sensationalism labeled and shamed New Delhi as ‘rape capital’ of the country.<a title="" href="#_ftn32">[32]</a> The victim Jyoti Singh is now labeled as ‘Nirbhaya’ meaning ‘the fearless one’ and she is morphed into an embodiment of women’s struggle for security and justice within the state. Her violated body is now represented as ‘the bridge between India, old and new.’<a title="" href="#_ftn33">[33]</a>  The suffering of ‘Nirbhaya’ is medicalized as doctors treat ‘the atrocious, unbelievable injuries she had sustained.’<a title="" href="#_ftn34">[34]</a>  These medical practitioners communicate their sense of shock at the ‘horrific brutality’ experienced by the victim.<a title="" href="#_ftn35">[35]</a> A violence so intense it startled the sense of resilience cultivated by experienced practitioners of medicine. This is the price the young victim must pay to seek some remedial measures from the state.<a title="" href="#_ftn36">[36]</a></p>
<p>The failure of the state in addressing gendered violence is also exhibited in a desecrated church in Rwanda. This desecrated church is now a memorial to the dead, and displays ‘a skeleton of a victim of sexual violence with a pole up her genitalia.’<a title="" href="#_ftn37">[37]</a> Coomaraswamy notes, ‘There she was preserved for posterity. Such horror in the most sacred of places.’<a title="" href="#_ftn38">[38]</a>  But unlike the skeletal remains of the ‘victim of sexual violence with a pole up her genitalia’ in Rwanda, the victim of ‘the rape that shocked the world’ has caught the attention of the West. The panoramic view of candlelight vigils, peace marches and popular tactics of naming and shaming deployed by the civil society against the state has captured the gaze of the West. The mobilization of civil society against the everyday practices of rape in the urban life of the city presents a challenge for a democratic country struggling to maintain its respectability and its secular credentials, touting the principle of freedom of speech, even of mavericks, in a language much understood by the West.</p>
<p>The powerful, civilized West that defies the powers of censorship of a state and makes readily available a film on rape culture in India. It shows a particular tenacity of purpose in investigating the particular case of Nirbhaya through the film, ‘India’s Daughters.’ But this film makes little attempt to ‘focus on rape speech that we encounter daily in our socio-political context’, fails to understand the pervasive influence of ‘rape speech’ and the culture of silence around rape deliberately construed in civilized societies.<a title="" href="#_ftn39">[39]</a> The ‘white savior complex’ of the West is held responsible for in fact giving voice to the rapist with his incendiary observations and silencing a culture of protest that has emerged in India around sexual violence.<a title="" href="#_ftn40">[40]</a> The film, in addressing the problem of sexual violence, does not even ‘begin to tell the story of how Indian girls are treated even before they dare to emerge from their mother’s wombs.’<a title="" href="#_ftn41">[41]</a></p>
<p>While a rapist gets a voice through the film ‘India’s Daughters’, the beseeching voices of teenage mothers in Guatemala finds expression through another documentary, ‘Too Young to Wed: Guatemala.’<a title="" href="#_ftn42">[42]</a> In Guatemala, the state and the Church sanction marriage at the age of fourteen. This painful documentary of young mothers barely out of their own childhood, pregnant and burdened with the responsibility of caring for another life with no income and no education, compels one to question one’s own ethics in indulging in this spectator sport of viewership. It compels one to think whether the word ‘happy’ should be removed from International Women’s Day and question the violence of a middle class morality that exalts marriage and motherhood, while the price of this morality is often paid by these poor young girls with no right to vote.</p>
<p>While Western film-makers have made strident efforts in depicting sexual violence in developing countries, one cannot ignore the politics of the womb played out even more vociferously in the West. The War on Terror waged from here encourages a proliferation of ‘hero discourses’ in the public sphere.<a title="" href="#_ftn43">[43]</a> These ‘hero discourses’ deliberately construct  ‘a morality tale where forces of the good combat the evil’ and ‘nation becomes a family; during war more than ever.’<a title="" href="#_ftn44">[44]</a>  They advocate a ‘vision of a unified nation where women, the protectors of the family at home, serve as the counterpart to the boys on the front, the mighty men in battle.’<a title="" href="#_ftn45">[45]</a> These hero discourses reinforced in public life through the media have actively marginalized ‘feminism and activism as possibilities for political expression.’<a title="" href="#_ftn46">[46]</a> They have made the American debate on abortion a ‘spectacle’ a ‘war flick with overtones of melodrama’ for the world to watch.<a title="" href="#_ftn47">[47]</a></p>
<p>In this ‘spectacle’ the battle lines are clearly drawn between the pro-life and pro-choice activists and all activism is ‘tarred with the same brush.’<a title="" href="#_ftn48">[48]</a> These battles have been fought with abortion clinic bombings and continue to be waged against each abortion clinic with Biblical chants and efforts to alter the wording of each piece of legislation on abortion. Followers of the abortion debate in the US argue that it is a ‘tug of war of language’ in which ‘linguistic victories translate into political victories.’<a title="" href="#_ftn49">[49]</a> The coercive power of law and the moral authority of the Bible are both invoked to the effect that not more than seven abortion clinics are available to women in the state of Texas, and the survival of one in Mississippi is contested.<a title="" href="#_ftn50">[50]</a> The tenuous survival of these abortion clinics in Texas, North Carolina, Mississippi has raised the question: ‘who calls the shots on abortion laws?’<a title="" href="#_ftn51">[51]</a> The question of power and responsibility does not clearly reside with women, although their  ‘vulnerability and poverty’ is often conveyed through television shots of ‘Latina and Black women’s bodies.’<a title="" href="#_ftn52">[52]</a> The burden of travelling long distances to get any medical assistance is visualized as ‘bleeding episodes’ of disempowerment of women.<a title="" href="#_ftn53">[53]</a></p>
<p>The question of responsibility is configured more abstrusely. Its history is traced to the struggle for power between the Church and the State, and the politics of the womb is the grey zone encrypted in a play of constitutional provisions that can be written, rewritten and erased. The players are on the one hand,  ‘politicians’ seeing the passage of state laws forcing closure of abortion clinics on the premise that they want to secure safe conditions for women seeking abortion. On the other hand are the stewards of religious diktat asserting their operative hand through the Church and its influence on the State. The Catholic Church’s position has</p>
<p>consistently been outright condemnation of abortion in all cases.<a title="" href="#_ftn54">[54]</a> Abortion is seen as a sin, and the key to ‘subversion of women’s destiny to be mothers.’<a title="" href="#_ftn55">[55]</a></p>
<p>Feminists have long critiqued the Church’s position on abortion as representative of a ‘deliberately misogynistic, power-hungry institution, seeking to extend its reach into every all spheres of social life.’<a title="" href="#_ftn56">[56]</a> Feminists also express deep concern for the suffering endured by women due to botched up abortions. But the power of the Church over the abortion laws in many places, such as in Ireland, remains enormous. This became obvious in recent times when the medical authorities in a hospital failed to assist Savita Halappanavar, who had been undergoing a painful miscarriage.<a title="" href="#_ftn57">[57]</a> Her hopeless struggle to exercise her autonomy over her womb came to naught. This despite her pleas that she belonged to a different faith and it was only on medical grounds that she was seeking assistance with an abortion. She was refused and died three days later. The laws of the state promise protection and those that seek to enforce them listen attentively to the ‘fetal heartbeat’, but are mindless towards the tremendous pain experienced by a woman undergoing a miscarriage for several hours, or the septicemia (blood infection) that prolongs her suffering for another few days, and the price of death she pays for her womb.</p>
<p>The laws of the Catholic state of Ireland and those that seek to uphold them promise an investigation based on list of procedures. These ritualistic procedures question legality and illegality of providing medical assistance to a woman seeking medical help with a miscarriage. There is an indulgence of precious time with legal hairsplitting on procedures that permit abortion when a mother’s life is at risk and procedures that prohibit abortion when a woman’s health is at risk.<a title="" href="#_ftn58">[58]</a> These promises and procedures are normalized to the extent that they benumb the voices of pain and protest endured by those carrying a womb. It is only when a woman shares the pain of her womb, endured seven times and ready for the eighth with a Pope, that she receives an assurance that there is no need for Catholic women to ‘breed like rabbits.’</p>
<p>The Pope argues that the Bible suggests natural birth control measures instead of the use of contraceptives. He exercises his authority in telling women not to breed like rabbits. The authority of his statement based on listening to a woman carrying an eighth child in her womb at great risk to her health emerges as an authoritative statement apparently giving coherence to the Church’s position on birth control. The denigration of the status of a woman to a rabbit does not even evoke the need for an apology. The woman remains anonymous in her suffering. But the Pope is applauded for his penchant for ‘straight talk’ and ‘colloquialism’.<a title="" href="#_ftn59">[59]</a> It is with convenient ease that one statement from the Pope seems to erase all memory of the active participation of the Church in the politics of the womb and its harmful legacy registered on the body of a woman/rabbit. A persistent participation that once again finds expression in the Pope’s concern with ‘ideological colonization’ interpreted as the imparting of education on gender theory to question the traditional division of male and female roles in developing societies.<a title="" href="#_ftn60">[60]</a></p>
<p>The traditional division of male and female roles is a subject of much debate even in the corporate sector. But it is the politics of the womb or pregnancy discrimination that ‘can only be experienced by women’ which is of critical significance in the workplace, as pregnancy discrimination is ‘most prevalent among corporate practices.’<a title="" href="#_ftn61">[61]</a> The vulnerability of pregnant women in the workplace is the subject of several articles, books and lawsuits registered on how pregnancy discrimination in the workplace undermines women’s self-esteem, increases stress and economic loss. These concerns need to be taken seriously in a neoliberal economy, a neoliberal economy in which corporate bosses exhibit a sense of naiveté or innocence of ‘corporate profiting from women’s work’ while women are still struggling for equal pay and promotions in the workplace.’<a title="" href="#_ftn62">[62]</a></p>
<p>This pretentious innocence became starkly visible at a recent corporate conference convened especially to celebrate the skills of women in the high-tech field of computing.</p>
<p>Satya Nadella, Chief CEO of Microsoft as a mentor in high-tech field of computing was questioned on how women should most effectively ask for a raise.<a title="" href="#_ftn63">[63]</a> His prompt reply was that women should <i>not </i>ask for a raise. He offered reassurance to women that their efforts will be rewarded in the ‘long run’ when their good work was ‘recognized’ and therefore there was no need for them to ‘ask for more money.’<a title="" href="#_ftn64">[64]</a>  He justified his advice in a warped logic of ‘good karma’ and the operative principles of human resource systems.<a title="" href="#_ftn65">[65]</a></p>
<p>This observation drew criticism from some for striking ‘an international high watermark for tone-deafness and being flat out wrong.’<a title="" href="#_ftn66">[66]</a>  But there were others that continued to dole out trite advice that women entering the workforce must, ‘be prepared to advocate for themselves when they negotiate salaries and subsequent raises.’<a title="" href="#_ftn67">[67]</a>  These voices are willing to make allowances:</p>
<p>I don’t doubt for a minute that Nadella, along with many other-tech CEOs right now, considers himself a strong advocate for women in computing…But he obviously still has some things to learn, as do many people in this field. There are many hearts and minds that need to be changed across the computing and technology companies, and even some of our best allies have a lot to learn.<a title="" href="#_ftn68">[68]</a></p>
<p>A language of ‘best allies’ and ‘strong advocate’ is still being deployed in the defense of Nadella a powerful male executive, despite his gender insensitive comments.</p>
<p>The danger here is of a failure to realize that gender games are ‘deadly games’ played by some that are simply oblivious, and others that are playing with an acute awareness of participating in a ‘cultural hallucination’ undertaken with ‘variations according to time and place.’<a title="" href="#_ftn69">[69]</a> A month after Nadella’s so called faux-pas, President Erdogan in Turkey, speaking at a forum on Women and Justice, appears to engage with the question,  ‘what do women need?’<a title="" href="#_ftn70">[70]</a> He responds to this question by endorsing a logic of ‘equivalence’ and not ‘equality’ for women.<a title="" href="#_ftn71">[71]</a>  These arguments are buttressed by iterating the ‘natural’ differences between men and women. It is emphasized that the same conditions of work cannot be imposed on a pregnant woman than a man and therefore ‘what women need is to be able to be equivalent, rather than equal.’<a title="" href="#_ftn72">[72]</a></p>
<p>This politics of equivalence and not equality within the state structure encourages stereotypes and endorses ‘a subordinate role as supporters, but not an equal role as agents.’<a title="" href="#_ftn73">[73]</a> Thus women as recipients of male exhortations are to bear more children and embrace motherhood. It is only in the status of a mother that a woman is expected to exult in the glory of her sons bowing at her feet, shed her tears, glance ‘coyly’ at her sons sharing her mythical state of ‘paradise.’<a title="" href="#_ftn74">[74]</a> It is only in this status that a man appears willing to concede ‘motherhood is something else’ and dole out ‘respect’ for a woman.<a title="" href="#_ftn75">[75]</a> Any resistance to these male exponents on the politics of the womb brings fierce and speedy condemnation against feminists and feminism for their rejection of the concept of motherhood.’<a title="" href="#_ftn76">[76]</a></p>
<p>Media sensationalism of such prejudiced statements by corporate and political bosses sometimes evokes an apology, and occasionally expedites a court trial.</p>
<p>Efforts are made through social networking sites to retract particular statements in a face saving exercise. These retractions and apologies qualify their jingoistic observations in terms of lacking in tact and being caught off-guard, on the spur of the moment. <a title="" href="#_ftn77">[77]</a> But these efforts do not conceal a mind-set operative in the corporate world that acknowledges and plays the politics of womb in practices of hiring, promotion and salaries of women. In the ‘fast-track trials’ the perpetrators of violence sometimes still continue to laugh, crack jokes unashamed and lacking in remorse.<a title="" href="#_ftn78">[78]</a></p>
<p>These recent experiences bring center-stage the continuous political battle being waged between the religious-political ideologues and feminists against the politicization of the womb. The feminists are conscious of the painful struggles wrought to bring the voices of women to claim a stake and participate in political discourses. This attempt to map the contemporary terrain of the politics of the womb endeavors to re-issue the ‘Wake Up’ call. We can no longer sit complacently and enjoy the benefits of struggles waged by our predecessors.  Asha Devi, mother of ‘Nirbhaya’ was rendered speechless as she watched her daughter suffer and die. She attested that it was the public protests on the streets that made her feel that humanity still prevails on this Earth.<a title="" href="#_ftn79">[79]</a> My effort is to no longer remain listless to the calls of ‘fast feminism’ that seek to wage a speedy battle against those engaging in a war of attrition, a politics of the womb, looking to assert their masculine dominance against the body of women.</p>
<p>In re-issuing this ‘Wake up’ call, fast feminism reminds us that ‘we are to the degree that we risk ourselves.’<a title="" href="#_ftn80">[80]</a> It issues a call to resistance with one’s body, it insists on action that will ‘queer’ the gaze that looks at the womb.<a title="" href="#_ftn81">[81]</a>  This resistance is not against motherhood, but on a woman’s right to assert ‘ownership’ of her body and demand respect.<a title="" href="#_ftn82">[82]</a>  The act of resistance performed in writing this text publicly expresses a wistful desire to confront the political violence of the womb.  It is not radical politics, but a demand for respect every day. The persistent lack of respect for the female body incurs the danger of in ‘no way predicting what women influenced by fast feminism will do.’<a title="" href="#_ftn83">[83]</a> Grrrl!!</p>
<p><i>The author would like to dedicate this article to Dr. Shannon Bell, Political Science Department, York University, Toronto.</i></p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/global-perspectives/excitable-speech-politics-womb-wake-grrrl/">Excitable Speech and the Politics of the Womb &#8211; Wake Up Grrrl!</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>L’inquiétante liberté de la littérature: Le cas de Soumission de Michel Houellebecq</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/linquietante-liberte-de-la-litterature-le-cas-de-soumission-de-michel-houellebecq/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:21:48 +0000</pubDate>
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				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Academic Journal: Summer 2015 (Issue: Vol. 3, Number 1)]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Soumission]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>On peut lire du désespoir dans la question &#8211; fameuse, rituelle, depuis longtemps routinisée &#8211; que pose Antoine Compagnon dans sa conférence inaugurale au Collège de France : Pourquoi parler &#8211;[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/linquietante-liberte-de-la-litterature-le-cas-de-soumission-de-michel-houellebecq/">L’inquiétante liberté de la littérature: Le cas de <i>Soumission</i> de Michel Houellebecq</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>On peut lire du désespoir dans la question &#8211; fameuse, rituelle, depuis longtemps routinisée &#8211; que pose Antoine Compagnon dans sa conférence inaugurale au Collège de France :</p>
<blockquote><p>Pourquoi parler &#8211; parler encore &#8211; de la « littérature française moderne et contemporaine » en notre début du XXIe siècle ? Quelles valeurs la littérature peut-elle créer et transmettre dans le monde actuel ? Quelle place doit être la sienne dans l’espace public ? […]Y a-t-il vraiment encore des choses que seule la littérature puisse nous procurer ? (2013 : 27)</p></blockquote>
<p>Le désespoir vient peut-être du fait que la question est en elle-même une réponse, elle contient le diagnostic, elle s’appuie sur différents symptômes. C’est une réponse en ce que, comme Compagnon le mentionne, au moment où la littérature occupait une certaine place dans l’espace social, lorsque le Nouveau Roman semblait repousser les limites de la recherche de la littérature, « [t]oute mention du pouvoir de la littérature était jugée obscène, car il était entendu que la littérature ne servait à rien et que seule comptait sa maîtrise d’elle-même » (2013 : 33). Aujourd’hui, depuis les années 1980 à tout le moins, cette question semble indépassable, topos nécessaire des études littéraires qui se regardent penser. À cet égard, la conclusion de Compagnon, qu’il veut d’un certain enthousiasme, n’est pas sans inquiéter : après la révision de tous les pouvoirs que l’histoire occidentale a accordés aux lettres, d’Aristote à Voltaire, de Voltaire à Flaubert, de Flaubert à Blanchot, il semble ne rester de nos jours qu’un confus acte de foi, mâtiné d’humanisme bon enfant. Les mots de Compagnon, de fait, ressemblent un peu à une prière :</p>
<blockquote><p>La littérature doit donc être lue et étudiée parce qu’elle offre un moyen &#8211; certains diront même le seul &#8211; de préserver et de transmettre l’expérience des autres, ceux qui sont éloignés de nous dans l’espace et le temps, ou qui diffèrent de nous par les conditions de leur vie. (2013 : 63)</p></blockquote>
<p>De même, soutient-il, elle résiste à la bêtise d’une certaine manière, car « elle pense, mais pas comme la science ou la philosophie. Sa pensée est heuristique (elle ne cesse jamais de chercher), non algorithmique : elle procède à tâtons, sans calcul, par l’intuition, avec flair » (2013 : 69). On comprend qu’une telle mystique de la pensée littéraire amène Compagnon à soutenir, polémique instantanée à la clé, qu’on « est un meilleur ouvrier si on a lu Montaigne ou Proust<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> ».</p>
<p>Le constat de fragilisation du pouvoir de la littérature est donc devenu un lieu commun des études littéraires. Les thèses de William Marx sur <i>L’adieu à la littérature</i>, proposent un récit antimoderne des plus amusants, le <i>Contre Saint-Proust</i> de Dominique Maingueneau, la réduction sociologisante de la littérature inspirée des <i>Cultural Studies</i>, la vulgate nostalgique du <i>bon vieux temps</i>, déplaçant les âges d’or selon les affinités &#8211; le structuralisme des années 1960, le <i>Sacre du grand écrivain</i> romantique, et pourquoi pas, la parole entendue d’un Voltaire ou d’un Diderot &#8211; sont autant de démonstrations d’une inquiétude générale, d’un soupçon étendu. Il n’est pas interdit que cela trouve ses racines dans le déconstructivisme, avec des affirmations comme celles, célèbres, de Stanley Fish à l’aube des années 1980, lequel postule que « [c]e n’est pas la présence de qualités poétiques qui impose un certain type d’attention mais c’est le fait de prêter un certain type d’attention qui conduit à l’émergence de qualités poétiques » (2007 [1980] : 60). De cette inversion des termes de la littérature naît, de l’aveu même du théoricien, une fragilisation des études littéraires : « Si nous croyons réellement qu’un texte n’a pas de signification déterminée, comment pouvons-nous prétendre juger des approches du texte de nos étudiants, et d’ailleurs, comment pouvons-nous prétendre leur enseigner quoi que ce soit ? » (2007 : 83) C’est là le relativisme rhétorique des études littéraires, qui, dépouillées de leur scientificité, de leur valeur de vérité &#8211; toute vérité étant relative -, n’est plus qu’une organisation de valeurs soutenue par un argumentaire pour asseoir, comme toute organisation de valeurs, une certaine domination, une autorité &#8211; ici discursive et savante. Le critique marxiste Terry Eagleton ne disait rien d’autre : « La littérature, dans le sens hérité de ce mot, <i>est</i> une idéologie. » (1994 [1983] : 22) Et en tant qu’idéologie – il s’agit de la conclusion d’Eagleton –, elle tâche de s’auto-justifier, installant le projet des études littéraires sur des fonctions et utilités, car, démontre-t-il dans son panorama théorique du XX<sup>e</sup> siècle, « [t]oute théorie littéraire présuppose une certaine utilité de la littérature même si ce que l’on en retire est purement inutile » (1994 : 205). Postmoderne, poststructuraliste, postcolonialiste, ce doute est constitutif des études culturelles contemporaines. Le dernier roman de Michel Houellebecq,<i> Soumission</i><a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>, à bien y regarder, ne semble pouvoir ne parler que de ça : la déréliction tranquille d’une idéologie, la déréliction tranquille de la littérature et de sa <i>gratuité d’expression </i>consubstantielle.</p>
<p>Certes, le jugement est rapide, et assurément injuste. Le contexte de publication du roman est connu, assombri et enrôlé, d’une certaine manière, par la tuerie du <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>. La liberté d’expression devient une clé de lecture pour un roman qui exprime une réalité limite, dystopie prenant parfois les atours d’une utopie, où la civilisation occidentale s’effondre face à ses propres armes. La question au centre de <i>Soumission</i> semble effectivement être plutôt celle de l’exercice de la démocratie et du retour du religieux, le roman en présente les confrontations et contradictions à la manière d’une véritable fable politique. Or, la littérature constitue le prisme par lequel ces changements sont absorbés : la narration est tenue par un professeur de lettres à l’université, auteur d’une thèse sur Huysmans. Les paradoxes de la démocratie se heurtent à l’idéal littéraire, un idéal esthétique et, à bien des égards, aristocratique. Il s’agit bien  d’analyser ici comment le discours sur la littérature, son autorité idéologique, est en jeu dans cette crise démocratique, comment la question même du propre et du pouvoir littéraires se retrouve au centre de la crise sociale de cette <i>fable politique</i>. En cela, c’est la liberté d’une pratique qui semble en jeu, cette liberté que la littérature défendait au temps des Lumières. Plus largement, il s’agira de voir en quoi la réalité nationale que semble contraint de penser le roman est inapte face aux éclatements postcoloniaux et aux ruines conjointes des grandes téléologies et des impérialismes.</p>
<h2><b>Une vie intellectuelle</b></h2>
<p>Dès l’incipit de <i>Soumission</i>, le narrateur adopte le rôle de l’homme de lettres, il confie ses origines qui ressemblent à une idylle, mais une idylle intellectuelle :</p>
<blockquote><p>Pendant toutes les années de ma triste jeunesse, Huysmans demeura pour moi un compagnon, un ami fidèle; jamais je n’éprouvai de doute, jamais je ne fus tenté d’abandonner, ni de m’orienter vers un autre sujet; puis, un après-midi de juin 2007, après avoir longtemps attendu, après avoir tergiversé autant et même un peu plus qu’il n’était admissible, je soutins devant le jury de l’université Paris IV-Sorbonne ma thèse de doctorat : Joris-Karl Huysmans, ou la sortie du tunnel. Dès le lendemain matin […], je compris qu’une partie de ma vie venait de s’achever, et que c’était probablement la meilleure. (S : 11)</p></blockquote>
<p>Il n’y a pas d’autre origine pour François : son enfance semble singulièrement vide de sens, d’ailleurs on n’y réfère que de biais à la mort du père, mort un peu manquée, mort sans signification, lointaine et dérisoire. C’est qu’on sent bien que la vie intellectuelle du narrateur est détachée du reste, singulièrement détachée de tout, une véritable île biographique, politique et sociale. Vers la fin, la conclusion de l’existence de François semble ainsi n’avoir été balisée que par cette longue amitié intellectuelle : « Je rentrai doucement à pied, comme un petit vieux, prenant progressivement conscience que, cette fois, c’était vraiment la fin de ma vie intellectuelle; et que c’était aussi la fin de ma longue, très longue relation avec Joris-Karl Huysmans. » (S: 283) De la jeunesse de l’incipit jusqu’à ce « comme un petit vieux », une existence complète se dessine, où les certitudes des premiers instants -« jamais je n’éprouvai de doute »- menacent de laisser place à la vie, une <i>vraie</i> vie que le narrateur ne saurait remplir. Mais cela, c’était avant qu’il ne découvre, via un système politique qui change tout, les vertus de la soumission, s’exclamant d’espoir dans les dernières pages :</p>
<blockquote><p>Que ma vie intellectuelle soit terminée, c’était de plus en plus une évidence, enfin je participerais encore à de vagues colloques, je vivrais sur mes restes et sur mes rentes ; mais je commençais à prendre conscience &#8211; et ça c’était une vraie nouveauté &#8211; qu’il y aurait, très probablement, autre chose. (S: 295)</p></blockquote>
<p>Pour comprendre cette évolution, qui ressemble à divers égards à une révolution, il faut sans doute se replier sur le résumé de cette fable.</p>
<p>François a soutenu une thèse de doctorat après quoi, puisqu’ayant pondu une excellente thèse, il occupe pour ce qui semble être le reste de sa vie un poste de professeur de littérature, à Paris. Outre sa thèse, il compte pour unique haut fait dans sa carrière la rédaction d’un ouvrage sur les néologismes dans l’œuvre de Huysmans :</p>
<blockquote><p>Les sommets intellectuels de ma vie avaient été la rédaction de ma thèse, la publication de mon livre ; tout cela remontait déjà à plus de dix ans. Sommets intellectuels ? Sommets tout court ? À l’époque en tout cas je me sentais <i>justifié</i>. Je n’avais fait depuis que produire de brefs articles pour le <i>Journal des dix-neuvièmistes</i> […]. Mes articles étaient nets, incisifs, brillants […]. Mais cela suffisait-il à justifier une vie ? Et en quoi une vie a-t-elle besoin d’être justifiée ?  (S: 47)</p></blockquote>
<p>C’est que ces sommets intellectuels ne trouvent aucun contrepoint, ni relation amoureuse, ni quête sociale ou politique, aucune expérience de transcendance non plus ne traverse la vie de François. Sa vie sexuelle se limite, au gré des cohortes, nécessairement passagères, à des étudiantes, puis, plus tard, aux services d’escortes. La vie familiale est nulle et n’apparaît que dans son ultime disparition. Les élections extraordinaires qui se déroulent alors en France permettent un léger divertissement au narrateur, même si, confie-t-il, « Je me sentais aussi politisé qu’une serviette de toilette, et c’était sans doute dommage. » (S: 50) Les choses commencent cependant à bouger lorsque le Front national et la Fraternité musulmane se retrouvent au second tour des élections : « Que l’histoire politique puisse jouer un rôle dans ma propre vie continuait à me déconcerter, et à me répugner un peu » (S: 116), laisse tomber le narrateur. Une ambiance de guerre civile s’élève pour se rendormir aussitôt, après que la Fraternité musulmane ait effectivement remporté les élections. L’université où travaillait François devient alors une université musulmane où seuls les convertis peuvent enseigner; sans trop penser, il décide de prendre sa retraite. Mais on le convainc de revenir enseigner : invité à diriger la Pléiade de Huysmans, on l’appâte dans les filets de Rediger, grand président des universités, qui lui vante les vertus de son système islamique, les vertus de la religion et de sa transcendance, les vertus de la polygamie, en un mot, les vertus de la soumission : « L’idée renversante et simple, jamais exprimée auparavant avec cette force, que le sommet du bonheur humain réside dans la soumission la plus absolue. » (S: 260)</p>
<p>Ainsi raconté, le roman prend l’apparence d’une fable assez binaire, où un narrateur apathique est confronté à une situation qui l’éveille; de la vie intellectuelle à la vraie vie, voilà sans doute le pas que franchit François, en effet, une vie gérée par un retour religieux et spirituel, mais aussi un retour en force du politique, le politique comme contrainte de l’existence. Ce mouvement de retour religieux et politique montre bien, en contre-jour, ce qui définit la vie intellectuelle <i>désintéressée</i> et <i>gratuite</i>. Ainsi, dès les premiers moments du récit, le narrateur résume ses conditions de thésard :</p>
<blockquote><p>Je souffrais de la pauvreté, et si j’avais dû répondre à l’un de ces sondages qui tentent régulièrement de « prendre le pouls de la jeunesse », j’aurais sans doute défini mes conditions de vie comme « plutôt difficiles ». Pourtant, le matin qui suivit la soutenance de ma thèse […], ma première pensée fut que je venais de perdre quelque chose d’inappréciable, quelque chose que je ne retrouverais jamais : ma liberté. (S: 14-15)</p></blockquote>
<p>Cette liberté inappréciable, pour ainsi dire sacrée, sait justifier l’existence miséreuse du narrateur ; cette justification semblait combler les défaillances de la vie courante. On comprend, en fait, que pour subir des conditions de vie « plutôt difficiles », il faut que la quête transcendante en vaille la peine, et c’est bien cet acte de foi qu’on peut lire dans les premières pages de <i>Soumission</i>. Écrire une thèse sur Huysmans, qui sera conservée en cinq exemplaires dans les archives de l’université, exemplaires fort peu consultés par les chercheurs au demeurant (S: 246), permet de donner du sens à la vie : « À l’époque en tout cas je me sentais <i>justifié</i> » (S: 47) Plus encore, cette quête marquée par la liberté et la gratuité se voit reconnue par la société &#8211; à tout le moins, par l’appareil étatique :</p>
<blockquote><p>Pendant plusieurs années, les ultimes résidus d’une social-démocratie agonisante m’avaient permis (à travers une bourse d’études, un système de réductions et d’avantages sociaux étendu, des repas médiocres mais bon marché au restaurant universitaire) de consacrer l’ensemble de mes journées à une activité que j’avais choisie : la libre fréquentation intellectuelle d’un ami. (S: 15)</p></blockquote>
<p>Cette libre fréquentation sera renversée dans le roman. D’abord par le narrateur, qui ne trouve plus guère de sens aux entreprises intellectuelles &#8211; « Mon intérêt pour la vie intellectuelle avait beaucoup décru » (S: 99) -, qui ne sait plus ni les défendre ni les comprendre; ensuite par la société, visitée par un retour politique et religieux qui semble, dans ses principes, avoir raison de la libre fréquentation intellectuelle d’un ami.</p>
<p>L’opposition constitutive est, selon toute apparence, celle entre la liberté intellectuelle, fortement ancrée dans la vie démocratique &#8211; liberté d’expression, de pensée, liberté de la presse &#8211; et la soumission &#8211; soumission aux diktats dominants, religieux et politiques, organisation du quotidien par les contraintes du réel, etc. La société édifie des mécanismes pour laisser libre cours à la liberté : les « ultimes résidus de la social-démocratie » s’en chargent en ce qui a trait à la vie intellectuelle, mais également en assurant la liberté d’expression des journalistes et le vote au scrutin universel. Mais tout cela est fragilisé dans <i>Soumission</i>. Les journalistes ne savent plus rendre compte de la réalité, ils taisent &#8211; sous l’ordre des politiques, suppose-t-on &#8211; les miasmes de guerre civile qui opposent la jeunesse frontiste aux jeunes musulmans ; ces mêmes journalistes, une fois le premier tour d’élection passé, ne savent poser de vraies questions à Ben Abbes, président de la Fraternité musulmane, contraints par la <i>réalité des urnes</i> de reconnaître en cette organisation politique un espoir, celle qu’un parti du « front républicain » puisse battre l’extrême droite. Mollement, ainsi, la liberté de presse s’use parce qu’on ne s’en sert pas<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a>. De même, lors des élections, des groupes armés assaillent des bureaux de scrutin. La liberté et son idéal s’effritent, coincés entre deux tirs nourris : les forces nationalistes et les forces religieuses. L’UMP et le Parti socialiste, les journalistes comme les intellectuels, doivent choisir leur dictature, prendre parti, sacrifier les principes démocratiques pour la démocratie.</p>
<p>Mais cette liberté dont l’idéal permet à François d’occuper la tâche qui est la sienne, qui lui donne licence d’enseigner la littérature <i>à côté </i>de l’existence, elle semble déjà compromise depuis longtemps. Huysmans, nous raconte le narrateur, avait de lui-même renié la liberté pour entrer au monastère :</p>
<blockquote><p>Je comprenais aisément qu’on soit attiré par la vie monastique &#8211; même si, j’en étais conscient, mon point de vue était très différent de celui de Huysmans. Je ne parvenais pas du tout à ressentir son dégoût affiché pour les passions charnelles, ni même à me le représenter. (S: 98)</p></blockquote>
<p>Il ajoute néanmoins qu’outre le sexe, son corps et sa vie ne lui procurent plus guère d’objets de jouissance dont le priverait la vie monastique :</p>
<blockquote><p>Et des sources de plaisir, en général, je n’en avais guère ; au fond, je n’avais même plus que celle-là [le sexe]. Mon intérêt pour la vie intellectuelle avait beaucoup décru ; mon existence sociale n’était guère plus satisfaisante que mon existence corporelle, elle aussi se présentait comme une succession de petits ennuis &#8211; lavabo bouché, Internet en panne, perte de points de permis, femme de ménage malhonnête, erreur de déclaration d’impôts &#8211; qui là aussi se succédaient sans interruption, ne me laissant pratiquement jamais en paix. Au monastère, on échappait, j’imagine à la plupart de ces soucis ; on déposait le fardeau de l’existence individuelle. On renonçait également au plaisir; mais c’était un choix qui pouvait se soutenir. (S: 99-100)</p></blockquote>
<p>À la liberté des plaisirs &#8211; corporels, intellectuels, émotionnels, sociaux- répond l’absence effective de ceux-ci, comme si le principe, ici comme dans le contexte politique du roman, ne suffisait plus à convaincre la réalité. Se soustraire à la liberté, en ce sens, c’est se soustraire à la jouissance comme à la souffrance ; et le sujet individuel, nous dit le narrateur, pourrait gagner au change. Lorsque Rediger tâche de persuader François de faire le pas vers l’islamisme, il souligne lourdement ce principe antithétique, prenant pour exemple la fermeture du bar de l’Hôtel Métropole de Bruxelles :</p>
<blockquote><p>Penser que l’on pouvait jusque-là commander des sandwiches et des bières, des chocolats viennois et des gâteaux à la crème dans ce chef-d’œuvre absolu de l’art décoratif, que l’on pouvait vivre sa vie quotidienne entouré par la beauté, et que tout cela allait disparaître, d’un seul coup, en plein cœur de la capitale de l’Europe!&#8230; Oui, c’est à ce moment-là que j’ai compris : l’Europe avait déjà accompli son suicide. (S: 255-256)</p></blockquote>
<p>L’art vécu, l’art inscrit dans la vie quotidienne, est dans cette Europe de plus en plus détachée de son fondement démocratique ; la liberté intellectuelle s’effrite non pas dans ses principes-répétons-le, des vestiges de la social-démocratie subsistent &#8211; mais dans sa réalité, dans son pragmatisme. Tout dans ce roman tend à relier la liberté du politique, perdue par pragmatisme, à la liberté de l’art et de l’intellect, de l’expression et, évidemment, de la littérature. Ces libertés élévatrices trônent bien en place dans la société de <i>Soumission</i>, mais la vie quotidienne ne sait leur donner un sens, ne sait les justifier. L’art est là, mais on ne peut le vivre, l’habiter vraiment, en jouir. Ces constats ne sont pas sans rappeler ce qu’écrivait Jacques Rancière à propos de la société de Flaubert, alors que se formait</p>
<blockquote><p>sous le pouvoir même de l’Empereur Napoléon III et de ses lois d’exception, une insurrection démocratique nouvelle bien plus radicale que ni l’armée ni la police ne pourraient réduire. C’était l’insurrection de cette multitude de désirs et d’aspirations surgissant de tous les pores de la société moderne, l’insurrection de l’infinité de ces atomes sociaux en liberté, avides de jouir et de tout ce qui était objet de jouissance : l’or, bien sûr, et tout ce que l’or peut acheter, mais aussi, ce qui était bien pire, tout ce qu’il ne peut pas acheter : les passions, les idéaux, les valeurs, les plaisirs de l’art et de la littérature. (2007: 63)</p></blockquote>
<p>Rancière précise : « Cette société de l’excitation, ils lui donnaient un autre nom : ils l’appelaient démocratie. » (2007: 62-63) Fuir la liberté quotidienne dans un monastère, être dépossédé de l’art et de sa gratuité, ne plus enseigner la littérature pour les vertus mêmes de la vie intellectuelle-sa vie intellectuelle est terminée, clame le narrateur, mais il retournera enseigner, pour les femmes et l’argent-, voilà le portrait radical d’idéaux démocratiques à vau-l’eau. Pour reprendre les termes de Rancière, on peut dire que la véritable jouissance de la vie quotidienne devient celle régie par le politique, celle précisément que l’armée et la police pourraient réduire, qu’elle encadre, pénétrant toutes les sphères de la vie privée. Rediger parle d’un suicide de l’Europe, un suicide qui aurait eu lieu il y a longtemps, aux premiers moments de la fondation de sa modernité. En montrant une vie intellectuelle qui s’effondre, de la jeunesse de François jusqu’à sa vieillesse, qui s’effondre sans qu’on l’attaque, <i>Soumission</i> met en scène-corroborant certes un air du temps, une morosité ambiante-ce suicide en action.</p>
<h2><b>Ce qu’est la littérature</b></h2>
<p>Mais malgré cette déréliction racontée, cette déréliction qui est le véritable mouvement diégétique du roman, on sent que demeure une charge idéologique, une manière de foi en l’activité littéraire. Lorsque François défend la littérature, en effet, s’entend, dans les mêmes mots ou presque, l’humaniste croyance d’Antoine Compagnon déjà citée :</p>
<blockquote><p>Beaucoup de choses, trop de choses peut-être ont été écrites sur la littérature […]. La spécificité de la littérature, <i>art majeur</i> d’un Occident qui sous nos yeux se termine, n’est pourtant pas bien difficile à définir. Autant que la littérature, la musique peut déterminer un bouleversement, un renversement émotif […] ; autant que la littérature, la peinture peut générer un émerveillement […]. Mais seule la littérature peut vous donner cette sensation de contact avec un autre esprit humain, avec l’intégralité de cet esprit, ses faiblesses et ses grandeurs, ses limitations, ses petitesses, ses idées fixes, ses croyances […]. Seule la littérature peut vous permettre d’entrer en contact avec l’esprit d’un mort, de manière plus directe, plus complète et plus profonde que ne le ferait même la conversation avec un ami. (S: 12-13)</p></blockquote>
<p>Le véritable voyage dans le temps auquel convie la littérature paraît fort bien exemplifié chez Houellebecq : sans cesse, comme ses autres œuvres laissaient ronronner la voix d’un Balzac, on entend ici l’esprit du temps de Huysmans, on sent, davantage que par le truchement simple de l’intertexte, que ce roman <i>accompagne</i> la littérature huysmansienne. Lorsque Godefroi Lempereur, spécialiste de Léon Bloy, laisse tomber, après un petit débat avec François :</p>
<blockquote><p>C’est curieux […] comme on reste proches des auteurs auxquels on s’est consacrés au début de sa vie. […] nous restons toujours fidèle au champion qui a été le nôtre, nous demeurons prêts pour lui à nous aimer, nous fâcher, nous battre par articles interposés. (S: 58-59)</p></blockquote>
<p>François rétorque, non sans qu’on puisse y lire de l’ironie : « Vous avez raison, mais c’est bien. Ça prouve au moins que la littérature est une affaire sérieuse. » (S: 59) Peu après, d’ailleurs, considérant des portraits du XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle chez Lempereur, François notera la distance qui le sépare des personnages peints, de la réalité même des peintres. Il notera : « Maupassant, Zola, même Huysmans étaient d’un accès beaucoup plus immédiat. » (S: 67) Puis ajoutera aussitôt : « J’aurais probablement dû parler de cela, de cet étrange pouvoir de la littérature, je décidai pourtant de continuer à parler politique. » (S: 67) Si la littérature est « une affaire sérieuse », la politique s’impose à la réalité, elle s’immisce dans la trame de vie du littéraire, elle s’immisce dans la trame du livre. On rencontre alors ce paradoxe d’une foi totale en la littérature, une foi jamais contredite par quelque prise de parole, mais une foi qui semble, comprend-on, s’édifier sur l’absence d’autre chose : aussitôt que la politique devient une question d’importance, elle est présentée dans sa substitution à la littérature. De même, l’amitié plus profonde que tout qui semble lier François à Huysmans ne peut se développer qu’en l’absence de toute relation sociale digne de ce nom : sans ami réel, sans famille, sans amour, le narrateur n’a que la littérature qui prend toute la place, <i>par défaut</i>. Le discours de la place de la littérature qu’on peut lire dans <i>Soumission</i> paraît alors ambigu : une fois dépassée sa défense un peu doxique et attendue, faite d’idées reçues et de vœux pieux, on perçoit alors un ordre de discours fragile, chétif, sans guère de pouvoir véritable, qui tend à disparaître aussitôt qu’autre chose lui est opposé. Son inutilité, sa gratuité, ne sont mis de l’avant que dans la mesure où cela garantit son évanescence. Lorsque la Fraternité musulmane prend le pouvoir, l’université où travaillait François oblige ses enseignants à se convertir, je l’ai dit ; l’ordre religieux, comme dans l’ancien régime, vient alors soumettre, sous la forme d’une douce censure, la littérature sous sa férule. Lorsque la politique galvanise le pays, la littérature ne semble plus être qu’un vain sujet de discussion. Lorsque les petites gloires de la jeunesse ne suffisent plus à justifier l’existence, lorsque la littérature comme instance de consécration ne permet plus de se sentir épanoui, elle est remisée, on lui préfère des plaisirs plus directs.</p>
<p>C’est dire peu de choses du discours sur la littérature dans ce roman, qui en est pourtant pétri. Bien sûr, la littérature macule le texte, de l’aoriste qui en constitue le temps classique-un tel passé simple, à la manière d’une relique, assure la volonté littéraire de l’énonciation-jusqu’à sa fiction qui transforme le réel pour en proposer une <i>hypothèse limite</i>. En fait, ce geste performatif qui consiste à rendre très lointain une réalité qui historiquement n’a pas encore eu lieu-et qui vraisemblablement, n’aura pas lieu-amuse sans déconcerter, il s’inscrit très exactement dans une convention énonciative de la littérature. Par là, ce qu’on aperçoit avant toute chose dans la forme même du récit, c’est son caractère conventionnel, presque suranné. Comme si à montrer un énoncé plongé dans son ordre de discours, se soulignait le rituel, le dogme d’une pratique ne se rénovant guère, comme la littérature, dans le roman, ne peut rien rénover du monde soumis à des forces radicales. En résumant l’amour de la littérature à la rencontre d’un ami, d’un individu, en assurant que</p>
<blockquote><p>la profondeur de la réflexion de l’auteur, l’originalité de ses pensées ne sont pas à dédaigner ; mais un auteur c’est avant tout un être humain, présent dans ses livres, qu’il écrive très bien ou très mal en définitive importe peu, l’essentiel est qu’il écrive et qu’il soit, effectivement, présent dans ses livres (S: 13),</p></blockquote>
<p>on enlève tout pouvoir transgressif aux lettres, tout pouvoir politique, même poétique, aux livres, et l’étude de la littérature, la littérature comme gratuité de l’expression, comme quête du dicible, comme évolution des discours sur le monde, cette littérature n’est pas. Il ne reste qu’un artefact à ausculter dans les facultés universitaires.</p>
<h2><b>Le pouvoir universitaire       </b></h2>
<p>L’université est le lieu, pour la littérature, de sa protection et de sa consécration. Érigée sur un savoir légitime des lettres, elle trouve son autorité et son pouvoir dans son caractère immémorial, dans son refus de discourir sur le quotidien, l’ici-maintenant. Comme institution forte, l’université paraît capable de préserver le culte de la littérature dans le temps.</p>
<p>Culte, pourtant, on l’a bien vu, des plus fragiles : de quoi peut donc être fait le pouvoir d’une instance qui assure le ministère d’un <i>savoir inutile ?</i> Dans la société libérale et capitaliste, le système des études littéraires, en effet, paraît parasitaire :</p>
<blockquote><p>Les études universitaires dans le domaine des lettres ne conduisent comme on le sait à peu près à rien, sinon pour les étudiants les plus doués à une carrière d’enseignement universitaire dans le domaine des lettres-on a en somme la situation plutôt cocasse d’un système n’ayant d’autre objectif que sa propre reproduction, assorti d’un taux de déchet supérieur à 95 %. (S: 17)</p></blockquote>
<p>La littérature à l’université offre alors un service reproducteur pour la valeur littéraire, capable-et ne visant qu’à-produire des spécialistes dans un domaine sans effet pour la vie courante, c’est-à-dire sans débouché d’emploi immédiat. Certes, le narrateur convient qu’« une licence ou un mastère de lettres modernes pourra constituer un atout secondaire garantissant à l’employeur, à défaut de compétences utilisables, une certaine agilité intellectuelle laissant présager la possibilité d’une évolution de carrière » (S: 17). Sans « compétences utilisables », pourtant, la littérature paraît inadéquate pour un système capitaliste ; en ce sens, pourrait-on croire, la littérature est transgressive, elle est un ennemi de l’intérieur aux forces du mal-mal idéologique que dénonçait, par exemple, Gramsci, en posant l’Art et la Littérature contre l’hégémonie étatique et économique. Plutôt, dans <i>Soumission</i>, elle ressemble à un divertissement de luxe. Achetable et tolérée dans le capitalisme, elle le serait tout autant dans un état islamique :</p>
<blockquote><p>Ce qu’ils [les dirigeants de la Fraternité musulmane] souhaiteraient au fond c’est que la plupart des femmes, après l’école primaire, soient orientées vers des écoles d’éducation ménagère-une petite minorité poursuivant avant de se marier des études littéraires ou artistiques; ce serait leur modèle de société idéal. (S: 82-83)</p></blockquote>
<p>Éducation de la minorité, une éducation sans conséquence, la littérature s’inscrit aussi bien dans les régimes dogmatiques que dans le régime libéral; elle ne conteste, finalement, ni l’un ni l’autre des régimes, présentée, ici, comme un parasite social servant les désirs et besoins individuels.</p>
<p>La littérature à l’université est marquée par une convaincante force d’inertie. J’ai mentionné l’indifférence du narrateur vis-à-vis l’existence réelle, placé hors du social et du politique; il en est de même de ses collègues, qui ne croient pas aux conséquences du politique :</p>
<blockquote><p>J’étais par contre frappé par l’atonie de mes collègues. Pour eux il ne semblait y avoir aucun problème, ils ne se sentaient nullement concernés, ce qui ne faisait que confirmer ce que je pensais depuis des années : ceux qui parviennent à un statut d’enseignant universitaire n’imaginent même pas qu’une évolution politique puisse avoir le moindre effet sur leur carrière; ils se sentent absolument intouchables. (S:78-79)</p></blockquote>
<p>Ce sentiment d’invincibilité des professeurs à la fois se trouve conforté par un système opaque, élisant avec parcimonie ses pairs et leur assurant alors, par une sorte d’adoubement, les privilèges de la fonction, et semble avoir à voir avec le rôle historique des universitaires dans les mouvements sociaux. De fait, avec Mai 68, l’intellectuel français a acquis un pouvoir politique qui semblait solidifier le système universitaire sur lequel il était juché. Or, aujourd’hui, souligne-t-on dans <i>Soumission</i>, ce pouvoir n’est plus qu’une illusion. Alors que les professeurs refusant de se convertir à l’Islam reçoivent une généreuse retraite, le narrateur s’étonne de ce sacrifice financier :</p>
<blockquote><p>Sans doute s’étaient-ils beaucoup exagéré le pouvoir de nuisance des enseignants universitaires, leur capacité à mener à bien une campagne de protestation. Cela faisait bien longtemps qu’un titre d’enseignant universitaire en tant que tel ne suffisait plus à vous ouvrir l’accès aux rubriques « tribunes » et « points de vue » des médias importants, et que celles-ci étaient devenues un espace strictement clos, endogame. Une protestation même unanime des enseignants universitaires serait passée à peu près complètement inaperçue. (S: 179)</p></blockquote>
<p>L’universitaire est endogame et n’a plus davantage la parole que le reste des citoyens ; il n’appartient qu’avec peine à la société : « J’aimais prendre le métro un peu après sept heures, me donner l’illusion fugitive d’appartenir à la “France qui se lève tôt”, celle des ouvriers et des artisans. » (S: 27)Il privilégie, sur des bases arbitraires, des spécialistes de certains auteurs au détriment d’autres : « il n’était l’auteur que d’une vague thèse sur Rimbaud, <i>sujet bidon</i> par excellence » (S: 28); « Mes doctorants m’avaient pas mal fait chier dans la journée avec des questions oiseuses, du genre pourquoi les poètes mineurs (Moréas, Corbière etc.) étaient considérés comme mineurs. » (S: 53) Sans plus de pouvoir sur la société, l’universitaire exerce un pouvoir omnipotent sur son domaine, pratiquant l’exclusion et la cooptation avec une perversion intimement liée à l’application totale de la domination.</p>
<p>L’autorité  du professeur de lettres apparaît alors comme tout à fait symbolique, n’agissant que dans le cadre restreint du champ universitaire, et encore, dans celui plus restreint du domaine littéraire. Ajoutant à cela que le domaine lui-même est frappé de vacuité, d’inutilité, d’apathie, sans effet sur l’existence, et voilà un portrait bien cynique de la littérature à l’université.</p>
<p>Avant de conclure, je ne peux que relever une troublante régularité dans l’évolution du récit, liée inextricablement au statut de professeur d’université du narrateur : ce dernier, comme dans bien des romans de Houellebecq, n’a de relation amoureuse ou sexuelle que dans un rapport, lourdement souligné, d’autorité. Mais cette autorité, dès sa première apparition, appelle celle du professeur : « Je continuai, année après année, à coucher avec des étudiantes à la fac-et le fait que j’étais par rapport à elles en position d’enseignant n’y changeait pas grand-chose. » (S: 23) D’ailleurs, après que sa copine étudiante ait fui l’élection de la Fraternité musulmane et que l’université elle-même fût fermée, François ne cesse de se plaindre de la stagnation de sa vie sexuelle. Ce n’est qu’alors qu’il fait appel à des services d’escortes. Parmi ces escortes, il mentionne : « Elle était en mastère 2 de lettres modernes, elle aurait pu être une de mes anciennes étudiantes […]. Sexuellement, elle faisait son métier avec beaucoup de professionnalisme. » (S: 185-186) À la fin du roman, ce qui attire le narrateur vers un retour à l’université, c’est l’assurance qu’il aurait droit à plusieurs femmes fournies par le système, des femmes soumises selon les règles de la polygamie. Non sans perversion ou misogynie, Rediger décrit ainsi le système-lequel ressemble un peu à une philosophie de vie :</p>
<blockquote><p>On peut, déjà, amener [les femmes] à être attirées par les hommes riches […]. On peut même, dans une certaine mesure, les persuader de la haute valeur érotique des professeurs d’université&#8230; […] Bon, on peut aussi accorder aux profs un traitement élevé, ça simplifie quand même les choses… (S: 294)</p></blockquote>
<p>Tout cela ne peut évidemment être pensé hors des discours sur la littérature et ses pouvoirs, comme si, en fait, se trouvait dans ces rapports d’autorité celui du savoir littéraire dans la société. En effet, la littérature est d’ores et déjà liée à la culture féminine—l’éducation pensée par la Fraternité musulmane, je le rappelle, impliquerait de permettre à certaines femmes d’étudier la littérature. Jamais, par ailleurs, on ne mentionne d’étudiant, outre le narrateur qui fut bel et bien étudiant avant que ne commence le récit : ce sont des femmes qui étudient les lettres. L’université prend alors l’apparence d’un grand harem où les maîtres-professeurs-agissent comme le harem le suggère, en pigeant et dominant celles à leur service. Après tout, si la littérature est une longue discussion libre avec un ami, il n’est pas tout à fait absurde que son enseignement soit un libre assouvissement de ses désirs sexuels, dans une heureuse ambiance endogame. Alors, le sujet littéraire-la femme, radicalement dominée dans ce roman-peut se demander à l’instar de Myriam, amante-étudiante du narrateur :</p>
<blockquote>[M]ettons que tu aies raison sur le patriarcat, que ce soit la seule formule viable. Il n’empêche que j’ai fait des études, que j’ai été habituée à me considérer comme une personne individuelle, dotée d’une capacité de réflexion et de décision égales à celles de l’homme, alors qu’est-ce qu’on fait de moi, maintenant ? Je suis bonne à jeter ? (S:43)</p></blockquote>
<p>Le roman répond de façon éloquente. Il ne se contente pas de dire, <i>tu deviens l’objet des dominants, on ne te jette pas, on te consomme</i>. Ce que dit <i>Soumission</i>, plutôt, c’est bien : <i>tu es déjà soumise, tu es déjà objet, seuls des principes te disent le contraire, la réalité, elle, sévit chaque jour</i>. La liberté de l’individu, comme celle de la littérature, comme celle de la démocratie, ne meurt pas dans ce roman; au contraire, ces concepts sont déjà morts et ne proposent que les spectres d’eux-mêmes, des idées devenues lieux communs.</p>
<h2><b>Il y va de Houellebecq </b></h2>
<p>Le portrait est sombre, certes. Parler du cynisme de l’écriture de Houellebecq ressemble sans doute à un détour superflu, on connaît déjà ses capacités à creuser profond la tombe de l’humanité. Il serait vain, en ce sens, de tenter de lier la représentation et le discours de la littérature dans <i>Soumission</i> à quelque réalité postmoderne ; il ne serait guère productif de conclure, par exemple, reprenant la manière goldmanienne, que comme sujet transindividuel, Houellebecq rend compte d’une <i>vision du monde</i>, traversée par l’idéologie d’une classe sociale et d’une époque, construits d’<i>interdiscours</i><a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>. Ce serait donner beaucoup de foi à l’expérience de la littérature, foi que le roman lui-même attaque.</p>
<p>En fait, ce qui nous permet de lier ce roman à la <i>semiosis social</i> est bien le cynisme, le relativisme qu’il évoque, rappelant les crises des études littéraires et plus largement des sciences humaines : avec Fish et Eagleton, William Marx et Dominique Maingueneau se lit la perte de discours constitutifs capables ou autorisés à produire la vérité. L’esprit postmoderne, si tant est qu’il s’agisse de cela, devient alors l’organisateur-ou le désorganisateur-des discours sociaux, dont <i>Soumission</i> serait une exploration probante. Car, comme le roman le souligne, la fin de l’Occident, son suicide, sa disparition, s’effectue sans heurts, sans qu’on l’attaque, il termine dans une absence assez effrayante d’assaut. Perry Anderson soutenait déjà, après Fredric Jameson et Jürgen Habermas : « Le modernisme, dès ses origines, chez Baudelaire ou Flaubert, se définissait comme “anti-bourgeois”. Or le postmodernisme est ce qui advient lorsque cet adversaire disparaît sans même avoir été vaincu. » (2010 : 122) Le postmodernisme se construirait alors grâce à la fin des antonymes de la modernité, c’est une victoire de la modernité sans vainqueur. La formule de Terry Eagleton, radicalement politique, est encore plus amusante. Après avoir décrit une époque où la gauche vit les lendemains d’une grande défaite, incapable de retrouver du sens après la débandade-culturelle, politique, littéraire-, il laisse tomber :</p>
<blockquote><p>Imagine, finally, the most bizarre possibility of all. I have spoken of symptoms of political defeat ; but what if this defeat never really happened in the first place ? What if it were less a matter of the left rising up and being forced back, than of a steady disintegration a gradual failure of nerve, a creeping paralysis ? […] There is, of course, no need to imagine such a period at all. It is the one we are living in, and its name is postmodernism. (1996 : 19-20)</p></blockquote>
<p>Le roman de Houellebecq s’inscrit assez bien dans ce lendemain : la liberté intellectuelle, la liberté d’expression, la liberté de pensée sont défendues par des vestiges, des principes usés qui n’ont plus les moyens de leurs fondements. La littérature, vieil art de l’Occident finissant, prend une place certes, mais cette place est érigée sur du vide et vite disparue au profit d’affaires sérieuses : la politique, la religion, l’existence. L’université plane sur une gloire ancienne, mais elle n’est devenue qu’une chasse gardée, pur exercice de pouvoir autotélique, où l’autorité sur la littérature est omnipotente ; sur la société, nulle.</p>
<p><i>Soumission </i>reconduit donc les idées reçues du postmodernisme, c’est peu de le dire. Mais après tout, peut-être fait-il un pas de plus ? Au sein d’une dialectique entendue où au terme postmoderne semblent, en homologie, répondre les termes poststructuralisme et postcolonialisme<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a>, l’œuvre de Houellebecq souligne <i>le retour</i> dont procède son discours. Il est vrai que le discours sur la littérature, le discours moderne et structuraliste, acceptait d’une certaine manière l’inutilité des lettres, car elles étaient un objet épistémique en soi, comme expérience du langage, elles justifiaient leur existence et leur distinction. Cela, cependant, se faisait sous le couvert d’une scientificité, et le structuralisme, cette « conscience éveillée et inquiète du savoir moderne » (Foucault, 1966 : 221) se voulait pour beaucoup critique des pôles nationaux et des normes ethnologiques. À cet égard, François, le narrateur de <i>Soumission</i>, n’est pas un critique structuraliste, il participe plutôt de cette « contre-modernité coloniale à l’œuvre dans les matrices dix-huitémiste et dix-neuviémiste de la modernité occidentale » (Bhabha, 2007 : 270). Englué dans un vieil humanisme &#8211; humanisme narcissique, mais humanisme tout de même -, il pense la littérature dans une acception linéaire, presque nationale, et à la polyphonie des discours sociaux qui s’emboîtent au sein des textes, il préférera la discussion entre amis, entre deux individus, ignorant la pluralité des voix dont serait faite la littérature dans son acception poststructurale et postcoloniale, au profit d’un échange intime. C’est en ce sens que l’idéologie dans le texte paraît antimoderne, pré-moderne même ; la littérature y prend les atours de l’art Péguyen, pré-sartrien, la politique devient une lutte de dogmes totalitaires, le nationalistme d’un côté, la religion de l’autre. Mais cette réalité pré-moderne, dans <i>Soumission</i>, est habitée par des êtres postmodernes, volontiers apathiques. De là l’élection d’un parti islamiste ayant pour principe ce qui s’oppose à la démocratie. De là la ruine de la littérature. Plus précisément, l’élection de la Fraternité musulmane, idéologiquement, est annoncée dans le roman par la perte même de l’idéal démocratique :</p>
<blockquote><p>Un candidat centre-gauche était élu, pour un ou deux mandats selon son charisme individuel, d’obscures raisons lui interdisant d’en accomplir un troisième ; puis la population se lassait de ce candidat et plus généralement du centre gauche, on observait un phénomène d’alternance démocratique, et les électeurs portaient au pouvoir un candidat de centre droit, lui aussi pour un ou deux mandats, suivant sa nature propre. Curieusement, les pays occidentaux étaient extrêmement fiers de ce système électif qui n’était pourtant guère plus que le partage du pouvoir entre deux gangs rivaux, ils allaient même parfois jusqu’à déclencher des guerres afin de l’imposer aux pays qui ne partageaient pas leur enthousiasme. (S: 50-51)</p></blockquote>
<p>Autant les politiciens semblent évincés de leur poste par des mouvements d’humeur, en vertu de leur « charisme individuel » ou de leur « nature propre », autant la littérature semble n’être plus l’affaire que de préférences personnelles. L’idéal s’en est allé. Comme rarement, en fait, ce roman nous met face à la parenté entre démocratie et littérature. Même si c’est pour, funestement, les unir dans la tombe. Par là, nous avons affaire à une fable tardivement postcoloniale. À la question d’Antoine Compagnon citée d’entrée de jeu, « pourquoi parler de la littérature française moderne et contemporaine », <i>Soumission </i>répond : parce que nous le faisons depuis longtemps, par habitude, inspiré par de vieilles idées qui n’ont plus rien à voir avec la société d’aujourd’hui, et cela tient autant pour le nom &#8211; la littérature, qu’est-ce encore ? - que pour le substantif &#8211; la littérature <i>française </i>conçue comme littérature tout court, <i>tout-littérature</i>, chez Compagnon, est pour le moins embarrassante et exige un peu de lucidité, un pas de côté pour percevoir le monde après l’impérialisme.</p>
<p>La « gratuité d’expression » que serait la littérature, manière de nommer « l’art pour l’art », n’est pas davantage reconnue dans ce roman que la mission démocratique de la littérature comme la présentait, par exemple, Erich Auerbach et son <i>Mimesis</i> : mission de discours qui consistait à intégrer dans la parole admise toutes les classes sociales, tous les faits, des plus illustres aux plus quotidiens, l’ouvrage majeur d’Auerbach montre que l’histoire littéraire descend l’échelle des classes au fil du temps pour en venir jusqu’à nommer et représenter les mineurs (chez Zola) ou les femmes (chez Woolf, notamment). Ni « gratuité d’expression », ni « liberté d’expression »-le tout exprimer-, la littérature est chez Houellebecq une sorte d’artifice nihiliste, un divertissement existentiel. C’est pourquoi il a été assez étonnant et assez contradictoire que ce roman ait été lié aux thèmes de l’attentat de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>. Il y a évidemment la simultanéité de la sortie du livre avec les événements : paru au début janvier 2015, le livre de Houellebecq annonçait déjà un petit scandale, on entendait surgir l’épithète « xénophobe » s’additionnant à celles qui pesaient sur l’écrivain depuis ses premiers livres. Mais par le contenu aussi, le livre et la tragédie entretenaient un dialogue. La mise en scène de la Fraternité musulmane qu’effectue Houellebecq, après tout, peut sembler moqueuse vis-à-vis de la communauté musulmane, et c’est en réponse à des moqueries satiriques que les attentats ont été perpétrés le 7 janvier 2015. Pourtant, on l’a vu, dans <i>Soumission</i>, le « je suis Charlie » et les professions de foi sur la liberté d’expression trouvent évidemment peu de substance, outre, peut-être, par sa capacité et son courage d’exprimer une hypothèse limite. En fait, le paradoxe devient des plus troublants quand on réalise qu’en effet, pragmatiquement, le livre, en tant qu’objet littéraire, revêt une charge politique, s’inscrit dans un contexte et milite, d’une certaine manière, dans ce contexte &#8211; ce serait l’idéologie<i> du</i> texte. En présentant François, à l’instar d’Antoine Compagnon, fêtant la littérature comme discussion intime avec un ami, le roman souligne la morbidité de cette position, car, en lui-même, après la tuerie du 7 janvier 2015, il devient un acte politique, une parole sur le monde reconduisant les diktats et les désamorçant dans le même geste. Comme le disait Eagleton, toute théorie littéraire postule une utilité à la littérature. Ici, plus simplement, on dénude l’inutilité dans laquelle elle paraît avoir été cantonnée. Cette dénudation revêt quelque acte rebelle, en sous-texte, et dans cette ironie houellebecquienne évanescente se lit la nécessité de redonner à la littérature sa valeur de discours. Les événements de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> infléchissant sans doute la lecture, il reste néanmoins au terme de cette errance nihiliste l’impression qu’aux nouveaux dogmes, réels et tangibles dans la société postcoloniale, il faut savoir réimposer le dogme de la liberté, et même, une liberté inquiétante, que portait jadis &#8211; il faut s’en souvenir &#8211; ce qu’on nommait la littérature.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/linquietante-liberte-de-la-litterature-le-cas-de-soumission-de-michel-houellebecq/">L’inquiétante liberté de la littérature: Le cas de <i>Soumission</i> de Michel Houellebecq</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Soumission de Houellebecq : ¿Islamófoba, decadente o misógina?</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/soumission-de-houellebecq-islamofoba-decadente-o-misogina/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/soumission-de-houellebecq-islamofoba-decadente-o-misogina/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:21:23 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA["Excitable Speech? Radical Discourse and the Limits of Freedom" (Summer 2015)]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Academic Dispatches]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Academic Journal: Summer 2015 (Issue: Vol. 3, Number 1)]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Culture]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Featured]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Michel Houellebecq]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Soumission]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>¿Qué ocurre cuando una novela da que hablar antes de su publicación? ¿Qué ocurre cuando se la conoce sólo por uno de los temas que aborda? Sin duda, la última[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/soumission-de-houellebecq-islamofoba-decadente-o-misogina/">Soumission de Houellebecq : ¿Islamófoba, decadente o misógina?</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>¿Qué ocurre cuando una novela da que hablar antes de su publicación? ¿Qué ocurre cuando se la conoce sólo por uno de los temas que aborda? Sin duda, la última novela del premiado escritor francés Michel Houellebecq era acusada de atentar contra los musulmanes, de ser una novela anti-islam, antes de que los lectores lo dijeran<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>.  Esta novela es un claro ejemplo de cómo el texto literario ha sido fagocitado por el contexto social y político; un contexto social y político secuestrado en Francia, y me atrevería a decir, en toda Europa por los últimos atentados contra la revista Charlie-Hebdo. Revistas literarias y suplementos en los principales diario, entre otros, se han hecho eco de la defensa literaria a ultranza del texto o de la condena del mismo texto literario calificándolo de islamófobo por alentar los perversos deseos de una parte de la sociedad europea que pretende hacer de la religión musulmana y de sus correligionarios, la amenaza que conduzca a Europa en la oscuridad.  ¿Por qué no han tachado la novela de blasfema, de machista, de conservadora y patriarcal? ¿Por qué nadie habla de que se trata de una ensoñación literaria y sexual?</p>
<p>Michel Houellebecq crea una “ficción política” en un contexto anti-musulmán que ya estaba lo suficientemente inscrito en el imaginario social y político de la Francia actual<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>. Nos encontramos ante una ficción, calificada por el propio autor como “ficción política” pero cabría preguntarse en qué condiciones el texto de un premio Goncourt puede escapar al efecto mediático, reductor y tramposo respecto a la comunidad musulmana. ¿Cómo puede la literatura escapar al contexto social, político e identitario del momento actual? Un escritor –lo quiera o no- detenta una <i>auctoritas </i>y su “ficción política”, como tantos otros discursos en campos diferentes, hace del Islam el “problema” de Francia y el desafío de nuestra civilización. Para contrarrestar esta profusión de estereotipos y clichés negativos, ¿es suficiente la crítica, la descalificación –que ésta dependerá de la ideología que compartamos? Ni Houellebecq es el causante de los fantasmas y miedos de buena parte de la sociedad francesa, ni ha escrito un artículo periodístico ni tampoco ha dictado orden ministerial alguna. Su discurso se sitúa en la “esfera estética” (Butler) y cuenta con la protección que le concede la propia ficción. Por tanto, siguiendo los postulados de la filósofa, defiendo la controversia que el texto suscita y abogo por “resignificarlo” a la luz de perspectivas críticas diferentes.  Pretendo confrontar el texto a sus propios fantasmas: la época decadente de Huysmans y el deseo de transponerla a la época actual; y por otro lado, las fantasías sexuales de un héroe solitario y morboso que se encuentran saciadas en una particular visión de la mujer en el contexto también particular –y a veces irreal- de un Islam ficción.</p>
<p>Si el discurso se define por su contexto social, esta novela no hubiese tenido la misma repercusión –a nivel internacional al menos-, de no haberse perpetrado los atentados  contra la revista Charlie-Hebdo; y si el discurso se define igualmente, como señala Judith Butler, por su capacidad de romper con el contexto, el análisis que reflejo a continuación pretende desviar el foco de atención mediático y demostrar que estamos ante un discurso estético que podría ser calificado de islamófobo, irreverente o simplemente machista y patriarcal (este calificativo no lo he encontrado mencionado en la pléyade de artículos y reseñas que sobre la novela se han publicado en multitud de medios).</p>
<h2>SINOPSIS</h2>
<p>La novela pone en escena a François, un profesor de Universidad algo desmotivado con su profesión. Con 44 años, soltero, mantiene una relación sentimental –más bien sexual- con Myriam, judía y menor que él. El contexto antisemita que vive un París de 2022 a las puertas de un cambio político radical, la llevan a volverse a Israel con sus padres. François, especialista en Huysmans, nos retrata cómo se gesta ese cambio político.  Una gran coalición unida frente a un FN que ha pasado a la segunda vuelta de las elecciones presidenciales, permite que el partido Fraternité Musulmane gobierne Francia, resucitando como primer ministro a un decadente François Bayrou. Los despidos –en modo de generosas prejubilaciones- se suceden en la nueva Université islamique Sorbonne- Nouvelle. Las alumnas van todas ataviadas con su pertinente burqa o velo y los profesores se convierten repentinamente al Islam y exhiben esposas menores de edad. Rédiger, rector de esta nueva Universidad, un belga convertido al Islam, autor de un pequeño manual sobre el Islam, será el encargado de “fichar” a François, previa conversión eso sí, al Islam.</p>
<p>Lo que pretendo señalar es que <i>Soumission</i> no es una novela islámofoba –a pesar de ofrecer una visión sesgada y muy particular del islam que más adelante veremos-, en el sentido que apunta Butler, en el que todo discurso –un texto literario lo es- es reiterativo de su contexto. Las infamias, los discursos racistas se repiten de múltiples formas y nada puede impedir su reiteración. En este sentido, Houellebecq no inventa nada que no se encuentre en el discurso político francés, en los medios de comunicación, que no esté en el debate social en Francia y en Europa. En segundo lugar, a pesar de que el propio autor y algunos críticos han definido la novela dentro del género de “ficción política”, el texto tiene más de ficción que de análisis político, por mucho que los nombres propios, la puesta en escena, o algunos datos pretendan dar una apariencia de realidad.</p>
<h2>Una fantasmagoría literaria: François, alter ego de Huysmans.</h2>
<p>La novela pone en escena a un protagonista, François, 44 años, soltero, profesor de Literatura en la Universidad Sorbonne-Nouvelle, autor de una tesis sobre Huysmans. Desde el principio, el paralelismo con el autor objeto de su tesis es evidente. François comparte características decadentes; sentimentalmente solo en la vida, se encuentra en permanente búsqueda de sí mismo. Su soledad le duele, y aunque mantiene una esporádica relación con Myriam, judía y menor que él, ella termina volviéndose a Israel junto a su familia por el antisemitismo que impera y que amenaza a la comunidad judía de Francia. De nuevo soltero, se siente incapaz de entablar una relación de pareja y termina consumiendo sexo con prostitutas. Muchas son pues, las similitudes que encontramos entre los dos personajes. Ambos andan buscando a una mujer desde la juventud; François, recorre cada uno de los lugares que visitó Huysmans (Abbaye de Ligugé) y, finalmente, ambos terminan su existencia convertidos a la religión, Huysmans se convertirá al cristianismo y François terminará convertido al islam. La novela traza así un recorrido paralelo entre el protagonista de la novela y el objeto de su investigación. Con una clara intención  de acentuar el decadentismo de nuestra época actual –y el futuro sombrío que promete-, Houellebecq hace coincidir el decadentismo de Huysmans con el de su protagonista, un hombre que ve cercano su ocaso intelectual, sin perspectivas de iniciar una vida en común, solitario y desencantado:</p>
<blockquote><p>“… à ma grande surprise, il y avait une lettre dans ma boîte. Je jetai un regard dégoûté à mon salon, incapable d’échapper à cette évidence que je n’éprouvais aucun plaisir particulier à l’idée de rentrer chez moi, dans cet appartement où personne ne s’aimait, et que personne n’aimait. Je me servis un grand verre de calvados avant d’ouvrir la lettre”. (Houellebecq 2015: 228)<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a></p></blockquote>
<p>El paralelismo temporal se pone intencionadamente de manifiesto para hacer converger las dos épocas que viven el protagonista y su autor preferido. En una conversación con Rédiger, el rector de la Universidad, ya convertido al Islam, con una brillante carrera política por delante  y casado con dos esposas, ambos recrean las similitudes entre la decadencia de finales del siglo XIX y la época actual. François, se deja convencer por los razonamientos de su colega y se pregunta a sí mismo: “Comment ne pas adhérer à l’idée de la décadence de l’Europe ? (257). La contestación a su pregunta se encuentra en el imaginario de una gran parte del electorado de centro-derecha francés: un fuerte deseo de sentimiento religioso invade la sociedad, un rechazo del ateísmo y del humanismo, la reivindicación del sometimiento de las mujeres y una vuelta al patriarcado, son algunas de las respuestas. Todo ello debe hacerse forzosamente con el sometimiento de las élites –la élite política y universitaria- quienes permitirán afianzar los tópicos conservadores de una sociedad que ya no confía en la religión católica como garante de los valores morales (matrimonio heterosexual, procreación, patriarcado, sumisión de la mujer al hombre,…). En este contexto de perdición, como el que vivió la antigua Roma, el rearme moral y familiar de Europa sólo queda representado por una nueva era, con poblaciones inmigrantes musulmanas en su mayor parte (275-276).</p>
<p>Más que ficción política, asistimos a una ficción decadente en la que la ensoñación, la simbología y todo el contexto son fantasmagóricos. El paralelismo entre François y Huysmans es particularmente significativo puesto que al final de la novela, en el proceso de acercamiento y posterior conversión al Islam, François acaba el prefacio para las obras completas de Huysmans que le publicará la prestigiosa editorial <i>La Pléiade</i>:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Je rentrai doucement à pied, comme un petit Vieux, prenant progressivement conscience que, cette fois, c’était vraiment la fin de ma vie intellectuelle; et que c’était aussi la fin de ma longue, très longue relation avec Joris-Karl Huysmans. (283)</p></blockquote>
<h2>El morbo del Islam (Mujer, Poder y Sexo)</h2>
<p>Desde las primeras páginas, el protagonista François muestra un tono despectivo hacia los <i>Gender Studies</i>, elucubrando sobre la vida sexual de la entonces rectora de la Universidad de París III, especialista en esta disciplina:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Chantal Delouze, présidente de l’Université de Paris III-Sorbonne, me paraissait une lesbienne 100% brut de béton, mais je pouvais me tromper, peut-être éprouvait-elle une rancune envers les hommes, s’exprimant par des fantasmes dominateurs, peut-être le fait de contraindre le gentil Steve, à s’agenouiller entre ses cuisses trapues, lui procurait-il des extases d’un genre Nouveau”. (29)</p></blockquote>
<p>En otro momento, en un encuentro con su colega Lempereur, nuestro protagonista se pregunta por la vida sentimental de éste, haciendo una reflexión general sobre las mujeres:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Je me demandais s’il avait une compagne, ou une petite amie quelconque; probablement, oui. C’était une sorte <i>d’éminence grise</i>, de leader politique dans un mouvement plus ou moins clandestin; il y a des filles qui sont attirées par ça, la chose est reconnue. Il y a aussi des filles qui sont attirées par les spécialistes de Huysmans, à vrai dire. J’avais même parlé une fois à une fille jeune, jolie, attirante, qui fantasmait sur Jean-François Copé; il m’avait fallu plusieurs jours pour m’en remettre. On rencontre vraiment n’importe quoi, de nos jours, chez les filles”. (89)</p></blockquote>
<p>El personaje de François se nos presenta como un “consumidor” de sexo porque sus encuentros con Myriam son esencialmente sexuales –incluido algún que otro fragmento que pudiera pertenecer a la literatura erótica-, pero siempre desde el punto de vista masculino. Es significativa la loa que le brinda a su órgano sexual –de género femenino en francés- como si de su mejor amiga se tratara:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Modeste mais robuste, elle m’avait toujours fidèlement servi –enfin c’était peut-être moi, au contraire, qui étais à son service, l’idée pouvait se souvenir, mais alors sa férule était bien douce: elle ne me donnait jamais d’ordres, elle m’incitait parfois, humblement, sans acrimonie et sans colère, à me mêler davantage à la vie sociale”. (99)</p></blockquote>
<p>Tras la marcha de Myriam a Israel, François recurre casi de forma sistemática a la prostitución, única forma de combatir su angustia sexual que parece ir acorde con la situación política que invade el país. Durante buena parte de la novela, el análisis que los protagonistas –mayoritariamente masculinos- hacen de las mujeres, es bastante simplificador, considerándolas casi exclusivamente como cuerpos sexuados, tanto en lo que se refiere a las mujeres musulmanas como a las occidentales. Muchos momentos ofrecen meros análisis sexuales de ellas:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Vêtues pendant la journée d’impénétrables burqas noires, les riches saoudiennes se transformaient le soir en oiseaux de paradis, se paraient de guêpières, de soutiens-gorge ajourés, de strings ornés de dentelles multicolores et de pierreries; exactement l’inverse des Occidentales, classe et sexy pendant la tournée parce que leur statut social était en jeu, qui s’affaissaient le soir en rentrant chez elles, abdiquant avec épuisement toute perspective de séduction, revêtant des tenues décontractées et informes”. (91)</p></blockquote>
<p>Con el cambio de gobierno que se presenta gracias a una coalición de varios partidos contra el FN, lo primero y más destacado que resalta nuestro protagonista es la mirada masculina sobre el cuerpo de las mujeres. Una mirada androcéntrica y sexuada detecta que las mujeres sólo llevan pantalones con blusas largas, que las faldas han desaparecido, anulando así la mirada excitante que involuntariamente y “por genética”<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a> le provocan a François culos y coños desdibujados por unos pantalones al final de unas piernas largas. (177)</p>
<p>Sólo en la página 226, se nos habla de las mujeres musulmanas –no de las prostitutas-, destacando su capacidad de despertar el deseo sexual de los hombres aunque se las considere unas eternas menores de edad: “En régime islamique, les femmes –enfin, celles qui étaient suffisamment jolies pour éveiller le désir d’un époux riche- avaient au fond la possibilité de rester enfants pratiquement toute leur vie.” (227). Asistimos así a un Islam que estigmatiza a las mujeres musulmanas. La nueva Universidad islámica de la Sorbona se llena de burkas y la conversión al Islam de muchos de sus ancianos docentes, les permite casarse con jóvenes incluso menores de edad. Un Islam desfigurado y machista aparece como el suministrador de jóvenes vírgenes a los decrépitos profesores de Universidad. Las mujeres no tienen presencia pública aunque asisten a clase pero la mirada masculina y occidental que la novela les presta es reductora y sexuada. Llama la atención el morbo que le produce alguna prostituta musulmana que frecuenta François. El morbo que supone su origen musulmán acentúa el placer de un protagonista inmerso en un <i>ennui</i> existencial que tiene sus consecuencias en una constante apatía sexual: “…je me décidai pour <i>Nadiabeurette</i>; ça m’excitait assez, compte tenu des circonstances politiques globales, de choisir une musulmane” (185).</p>
<p>La cita de Khomeini que encabeza el último capítulo de la novela, nos introduce de lleno en la falsa imagen de la religión musulmana reducida a su vertiente política, y a la amalgama a la que quieren reducir y homogeneizar a la población musulmana de Francia. En las páginas que siguen, las mujeres son la eternas jóvenes y bonitas acompañantes de hombres de negocios o de profesores. François se detiene especialmente en las dos esposas de Rédiger, su primera mujer Malika y la segunda, una joven de quince años. Rédiger es el flamante rector de la Universidad islámica París-Sorbona, de origen belga, autor de una tesis sobre el matemático Guénon<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> y Nietzsche, casado con dos mujeres y que quiere incorporar a François al cuerpo docente siempre y cuando éste se convierta al Islam.</p>
<p>El Rector de la recién estrenada  Universidad islámica es quien nos da la clave del título de la novela y una definición del Islam que podría ser –lo es- blasfematoria: el súmmum de la felicidad humana radica en la sumisión y para él hay una relación directa entre la sumisión de la mujer al hombre, tal y como aparece descrita en la novela <i>Historia de O</i>, y la sumisión del hombre a Dios, tal y como la concibe el Islam (260)<a title="" href="#_ftn6">[6]</a>. Este símil carnal del sentimiento religioso no es sólo irreverente, podría llegar a ser considerado por quienes profesan la religión musulmana como un acto blasfematorio.</p>
<p>Los continuos consejos que el protagonista recibe sobre las mujeres, reflejan su imagen frívola, señalándolas como seres fácilmente manejables y educables. Si bien se sienten atraídas por el aspecto físico, es fácil hacerles ver el lado seductor de la riqueza y más aún, el lado erótico de los profesores de universidad…  Ello nos demuestra que, como dice Butler, el texto lleva inscrito el sexo del imaginario del autor. Para François, el Islam le aporta morbo y placer a su triste y aburrida existencia. El Islam viene a llenar un vacío existencial, moral y sexual en una vida de héroe solitario y decadente. El final de la novela deja relucir que, más que un hueco espiritual, el Islam viene a llenar con mujeres sumisas, la vida de François, algo así como lo que le supuso a su padre, su segunda pareja. Al morbo del Islam, se añade la erótica que supone la imagen distorsionada de una religión que mantiene en permanente estado inferior a la mujer y explota su imagen sexual que para el hombre tiene:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Quelques mois plus tard il y aurait la reprise des tours, et bien entendu les étudiantes –jolies, violes, timides. (…) Chacune de ces filles, aussi jolie soit-elle, se sentirait heureuse et fière d’être choisie par moi, et honorée de partager ma couche. Elles seraient dignes d’être aimées; et je parviendrais, de mon côté, à les aimer.</p>
<p>(…)</p>
<p>Un peu comme cela s’est produit, quelques années auparavant, pour mon père, une nouvelle chance s’offrirait à moi; et ce serait la chance d’une deuxième vie, sans grand rapport avec la précédente”. (299)</p></blockquote>
<h2>CONCLUSIÓN</h2>
<p>Michel Houellebecq podría haber escrito otro texto sobre la cuestión musulmana en la que apareciese una Francia reinventada en su diversidad, en lugar de un país crispado por una identidad fantaseada y mortífera (Plenel 2015: 101)<a title="" href="#_ftn7">[7]</a>; sin embargo, lo que ha escrito bajo una dudosa calificación de ficción política es un texto en el que sitúa frente al espejo a buena parte del electorado conservador francés. Houellebecq recrea una ensoñación literaria en la que el aspecto decadente y misógino irreal sobresale al más puro estilo <i>dix-neuvièmiste.</i> Siguiendo a Butler, dependiendo del contexto, de las lecturas y resignificaciones, el texto adquiere nuevos significados. Así, una lectura feminista ha permitido resistir a la literalización de la escena imaginaria de un Islam reducido y engañoso. Como bien apunta ella: “Lire tels textes contre eux-mêmes, c’est admettre la performativité du texte qui n’est pas soumise à un contrôle souverain” (2014:100). De esta manera, he querido mostrar que un mismo texto adquiere nuevos significados y que el discurso originariamente “hiriente” o incluso xenófobo, podría ser calificado de discurso patriarcal y machista sobre el que muchos lectores habrán pasado de puntillas. El contexto político de su publicación ha centrado el “daño” o el odio hacia lo musulmán, sin embargo, y consecuencia de él, pocas personas habrán leído el mismo texto bajo la perspectiva de género y habrán deducido que, en cuestión de mujeres, el Islam es a este siglo lo que la religión católica fue a los finales del siglo XIX. Un conservadurismo y una fuerte misoginia invadieron buena parte de la producción artística y literaria de finales del siglo XIX. La hipersexualización y la orientalización de la mujer se materializaron en el mito de la Mujer Fatal y en el personaje bíblico de Salomé del que Huysmans fue uno de los grandes abanderados junto a pintores como Moreau. Éste es, tal vez, el pacto del discurso estético: releerlo y dotarlo de nuevos significados, explotar la performatividad y la política.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/soumission-de-houellebecq-islamofoba-decadente-o-misogina/">Soumission de Houellebecq : ¿Islamófoba, decadente o misógina?</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Unsalting the Earth: Sebastião Salgado and Le Sel de la Terre</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/unsalting-earth-sebastiao-salgado-le-sel-de-la-terre/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:20:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<category><![CDATA[Le Sel de la Terre]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Sebastião Salgado]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>A film about renowned social photographer Sebastião Salgado, created by master documentarian Wim Wenders, makes sense from the outset. The two figures share a history of political commentary, each crafting[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/unsalting-earth-sebastiao-salgado-le-sel-de-la-terre/">Unsalting the Earth: Sebastião Salgado and <i>Le Sel de la Terre</i></a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>A film about renowned social photographer Sebastião Salgado, created by master documentarian Wim Wenders, makes sense from the outset. The two figures share a history of political commentary, each crafting an oeuvre concerned with the drama of humanity, globalism, and nature. The award-winning, and Oscar-nominated <i>Le Sel de la Terre,</i> (<i>The Salt of the Earth</i>, a French and Brazilian production, 2014) was made by Wenders in conjunction with Salgado’s son, Juliano. It’s a predictably beautiful production: soaring, sweeping, silver-plated. Wenders narrates Salgado’s personal and aesthetic biography, combining intimate images from Salgado’s own archive with photographs from major works such as <i>Otras Américas </i>(1986), <i>Workers</i> (1993)<i>, Terra </i>(1997), <i>Sahel: The end of the road</i> (2004), <i>Exodus </i>(2005), and <i>Genesis (2013). </i>To tell the story, Wenders has used a mirror technique where Salgado’s images are dimensionalised with the literal voice and eye of their creator, so we see each image at the same time as we see Salgado recalling their provenance. The mirror is a simple vector for accessing the artists’ thoughts and feelings, setting a mood of reflection and recollection.</p>
<p>Juliano Salgado speaks too, taking over from Wenders on occasion, remembering his father’s ‘superhero’ presence in their early family life while in exile in Paris during the Brazilian dictatorship. Wenders and Salgado want us to know that family life and the family home hold the photographer’s practice together: at a number of points in the film we also hear from Sebastião’s own father, a farmer from Minas Gerais in Brazil’s southwest, as well as Lélia, Salgado’s partner. Lélia, we learn, was the primary parent for Juliano (and his younger brother, Rodrigo) whilst Sebastião travelled the world for work; she is also the chief curator and designer of most of Sebastião’s exhibitions and publications.</p>
<p>From the outset, Wenders reminds us that Salgado commenced professional life as an economist, working on development projects with organisations like the World Bank and the International Coffee Organisation. Salgado turned to photography after borrowing Lélia’s Leica, turning his gaze onto subjects such as <a href="http://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/27/sebastiao-salgado-migrant-in-a-world-of-migrants/?hp">housing projects in France</a>, <a href="http://www.amazonasimages.com/travaux-amerique-latine">the lives of Indigenous peoples and peasant farmers throughout Latin America</a>, and the experience of famine in the Sahel. He learns about liberation theology in Ecuador and Peru, travelling with a radical priest who introduces him to poor communities in the throes of organising against state impunity and Church complicity. Salgado’s exposure to (and of) Indigenous peoples is also important to this period, which the film sacralises through the memory of a Saraguros man in a village in Ecuador, who told Salgado he believed the photographer was “sent from heaven”. To be sure, Salgado’s lifelong interest in Indigenous peoples has the consistent theme of unfettered access, with the blessing of his subjects, and the virtues of ‘non-modern’ time and technique. Later, this dovetails neatly with the photographers’ reverence for what he views as the “pristine” nature of the pre-industrial world.</p>
<p>These optics, which may be viewed as alternately colonial and humanistic, have rightly earned Salgado’s work forceful critiques that call into question the otherwise overwhelming respect and acclaim accorded to the photographer. These critiques remained present with me as I watched <i>Le Sel de la Terre</i>. As Parvati Nair recounts in her book <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=SuyhTP3Lw_YC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;dq=parvathy%20nair%20a%20different%20light&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false"><i>A Different Light</i></a> (2011), the most well-known critics of Salgado include Susan Sontag, Ingrid Sischy, and Michael Kimmelman, who have been variously concerned with the photographer’s politics and ethics by noting the relative voicelessness of his subjects, the aestheticization of their suffering, the grandeur and universality accorded to disparate human and planetary experience (in works such as <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=pChoQgAACAAJ&amp;dq=salgado+terra&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI_pbaod6OxgIVYtqmCh2GLwOJ"><i>Terra</i></a>, <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=5d2nQAAACAAJ&amp;dq=salgado+workers&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI4tGmst6OxgIV4iumCh1iVwDf"><i>Workers</i></a>, <a href="http://www.amazonasimages.com/travaux-exodes"><i>Exodus</i></a>, and <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=WVa8NAEACAAJ&amp;dq=salgado+genesis&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0CC8Q6AEwAGoVChMIxcKxwN6OxgIVIyqmCh1BzQB1"><i>Genesis</i></a>), and a certain fetishization of the pre-modern, the non-industrialized, and the spiritual. These critics agree that there is a fundamental injustice in the production of reportage, artworks, and the like whose most visible benefit is to the producer, who enjoys considerable fame and financial benefit from the depiction of subjects who do not speak. Despite best intentions, Salgado as producer controls the narrative about the lives of these ‘others’. The questions posed by Sontag and others are as relevant to the work as the images themselves.</p>
<p>Indeed, we usually don’t know if the people in Salgado’s images gave their permission to be photographed, to be styled in a particular way, or to be placed into a narrative of global suffering that regularly skirts the colonial aesthetics of “the noble savage,” as well as the ‘inevitably’ poor, starving, or dead, contrasted by a ‘perfect,’ pre-human wilderness. We’re simply asked to accept Salgado’s vision, and to praise him for the extent and the intimacy of his ‘access,’ however attained. Whilst Salgado has raised awareness and donated funds through his work, we don’t know whether the lives of the people depicted in the midst of conflict and famine have materially improved. (Wenders, too, has a habit of deploying the colonial visual rhetoric of discovery and benevolence for unclear ends, as <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HAV_pBAIHKIC&amp;pg=PA43&amp;lpg=PA43&amp;dq=simon+featherstone+wim+wenders&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=-xiF9sE7Yt&amp;sig=Q2B9oL6PgmIVv7sp-FD9mlTlALs&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=2GNLVY2xBOW5mAX1y4CoCw&amp;ved=0CCsQ6AEwAg">Simon Featherstone</a> suggests of <i>The Buena Vista Social Club</i>.)</p>
<p>The critiques above find some confirmation in <i>Le Sel de la Terre.</i> For example, “<a href="http://africasacountry.com/">Africa</a>,” often spoken of as a singular entity, is described as the place of deepest inspiration and necessary return for the photographer’s practice, and also the site of greatest trauma. On photographing the displaced and violated in Central Bosnia, Salgado says: “it’s strange this was happening in Europe, at the end of the 20th century… these people had a European state of living, a European intellectual capacity”. “Africa” escapes such historicised incredulity, suggesting that Salgado sees the comparably structural suffering of people experiencing famine in the Sahel region as somehow more unavoidable. Within this context, the ‘strength’ and ‘humility’ of the suffering bodies that Salgado has witnessed throughout his career is regularly referenced, as is the defining power of Salgado’s own gaze, whilst Wenders, as many others have before him, praises Salgado’s “empathy for the human condition”.</p>
<p>Recounting an especially threatening moment photographing the effects of drought and the state manufacture of famine in Ethiopia &#8211; helicopters and machine guns bearing down on people fleeing that country in search of safety and nourishment &#8211; Sebastião notes, “I took a photo, and then I ran”. This particular zone of suffering has Salgado pairing with humanitarians Medecins Sans Frontières (MSF). In Mali, Salgado shows how MSF physicians “saved” children suffering from extreme starvation through a highly successful recovery program. Overall, Salgado’s images from this period are distinctly disturbing, and, as images of starved and dead Black bodies, they cannot be immune from the charge of racialized subjugation or poverty porn. Wenders does not consider this, though; instead noting softly that Salgado’s book <i>Sahel: The end of the road, </i>where many such photographs appeared, raised powerful “awareness” of the effects of the drought on the people and raised troubling questions about its political causes.</p>
<p>As the film continues we hear how Salgado’s witness nearly kills him after he accompanies UN soldiers to photograph refugees relocating from Rwanda to the Congo during the Hutu genocide, after which he contemplates giving up his vocation altogether. Wenders works this melancholic white man’s trope: we sense the burden of bearing, through interpreting, human suffering in artistic and intellectual practice, as well as the turn from materiality to nature for comfort if not redemption &#8211; that strange conflation of authorship, transcendence and self-loathing that has men hating humanity whilst striving to save it. The privileged capacity to leave these sites of suffering &#8211; such as being able to run from the machine guns &#8211; still apparently escapes Salgado’s attention. After Rwanda, Salgado decides that, “I no longer believed in salvation for humans”. If at this point we are still unsure how to understand the specific nature of Salgado’s moral and aesthetic burden, Wenders makes it explicit, “Sebastião had seen into the heart of darkness.”</p>
<p>In the end, Salgado doesn’t leave photography. He turns his lens from the fallen human world to the preservation of a pre-industrial harmony with nature at home on his family’s drought-ravaged farm in Minas Gerais. We see him tending to seedlings and looking out over newly greened hills. The Salgados’ <a href="http://www.institutoterra.org/eng/conteudosLinks.php?id=22&amp;tl=QWJvdXQgdXM=&amp;sb=NQ==#.VUR0La2qqko">‘Instituto Terra’</a> is a regenerated sanctuary for native plants and animals of Brazil’s Atlantic Forest, ‘returned’ to this state from its previous existence as the family cattle ranch. We hear of Salgado’s succour in seeing a tree he “helped to plant” flourish. This is doubtlessly the source material for Salgado’s edenic turn in <i>Genesis</i>, for which he decides to shift from the register of denunciation of his previous works (which critique consumerism, labour exploitation, land enclosure, and border protection) to one of optimistic announcement that “two-thirds of the earth is still as it was at the time of creation”. This, he says, can inspire us, as “the destruction of nature can be reversed.” In his encounters with the plants and animals, Salgado sees himself anew as a part of an ecosystem, as “of the earth”, which is timeless and embracing. Salgado appears as a new kind of benevolent settler, making the desert bloom, turning from a belief in human salvation to a hope for redemption through nature.</p>
<p>Lest we completely consign Salgado to the status of the Bono of photojournalism, it should be noted that <i>Le Sel de la Terre</i> does reveal a somewhat more complex eye than the above critiques might suggest if analysed individually. Salgado’s touch is gentle, and often leaves key questions unanswered. Even at its most romanticized, his effect is not one of the moral sledgehammer, and his approach is far from cynical. The film depicts a rather deferential man with a ruminative lens and a slow burning mood. Whilst we don’t know anything of the dynamics outside the frame, when Salgado is filmed with his subjects there appears to be mutual generosity and appreciation, with the affective exchange appearing quite horizontal: in a Zo&#8217;é indigenous community in the Amazon, we see children and adults laughing at him, using his camera, and posing for photographs with pride. Further, Salgado’s treatment of the humanitarian response to the tragedies he documents is not entirely uncritical. Of the displaced in the Sahel he reveals that, in moving a camp, MSF’s food distribution plans went awry and many more people died at the very point at which they had been told to expect food and safety. In documenting and exhibiting the human suffering of human-made conditions like war and famine, Salgado’s messaging appears more “come and see the blood on the streets” than the facile “make poverty history”. It might be Wenders’ rendering that is more wanting than Salgado’s practice. The authorial Salgado voice and eye is greatly exaggerated by Wenders’ gentle peritext and Salgado Junior’s longing to know his larger-than-life dad.</p>
<p>Indeed, Salgado’s images are part of the visual lexicon of movements for global justice, complicating their perception. Of <i>Terra</i>, the photographic volume concerning the struggles and successes of Brazil’s landless worker’s movement, Salgado says in <a href="http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2015/4/14/writer_eduardo_galeano_photojournalist_sebastiao_salgado">an interview alongside the late Eduardo Galeano</a>, that it was produced from a position of being “inside the debate”, of making images and showing them directly alongside those he depicted. In so doing he roundly rejects the notion of his work as “fine art”. This, says Salgado, is the way he is portrayed by the United States: i.e. as a ‘fine art photojournalist’. That portrayal, he argues, is categorically wrong. Salgado is a leftist, a former exile from military dictatorship, a critic that is moved by human suffering, humbled by human resilience, and disturbed by the intricacy of injustice. His photography, he says, is to be understood <i>as a relation</i> more than as an object; as document more than artwork. Certainly, during travels in South America in 2005 and 2007 I saw images from <i>Terra</i> on the walls of houses in the Movimento Sem Terra (the Brazilian landless movement) occupations, on the cover of Zapatista publications in southern Mexico, on display in various NGO offices in Brazil and Mexico and in a community farmhouse in a small town in south-eastern Bolivia. As <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=SuyhTP3Lw_YC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=parvathy+nair+a+different+light&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ei=8TBMVb_GGaOimQWgkIGQAw&amp;ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">Parvati Nair</a> also recognises, an image made by Salgado signifies very differently within these networks: “its outreach is not the same as it would be in a book, next to specific text or on the walls of Movimento Sem Terra’s office.&#8221; Place and context are both important to situating, evaluating and interpreting Salgado’s body of work; something Wenders might have made more of.</p>
<p>Wenders concludes his introduction to the film with the words, “after all, people are the salt of the earth”. Salgado, however, seems to be telling us that it is people who have salted the earth &#8211; scourged it with exploitation, war, and famine &#8211; and that there is value in marginalizing humans entirely. By the end of <i>Le Sel de la Terre</i>’s 110 minutes, I’d have settled for a de-centering of the globalised male auteur as the vehicle for registering human experience.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/unsalting-earth-sebastiao-salgado-le-sel-de-la-terre/">Unsalting the Earth: Sebastião Salgado and <i>Le Sel de la Terre</i></a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>De l&#8217;humour noir aux caricatures : impensés d&#8217;une tradition satirique</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/de-lhumour-noir-aux-caricatures-impenses-dune-tradition-satirique/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:20:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Liberté d&#8217;expression et humour font l&#8217;objet d&#8217;une quête permanente de leurs limites. C&#8217;est un truisme de rappeler que la liberté n&#8217;est pas l&#8217;espace ouvert à tous les possibles contenus dans[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/de-lhumour-noir-aux-caricatures-impenses-dune-tradition-satirique/">De l&#8217;humour noir aux caricatures : impensés d&#8217;une tradition satirique</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Liberté d&#8217;expression et humour font l&#8217;objet d&#8217;une quête permanente de leurs limites. C&#8217;est un truisme de rappeler que la liberté n&#8217;est pas l&#8217;espace ouvert à tous les possibles contenus dans une simple volonté, mais un pré carré dont les limites se redéfinissent perpétuellement au gré des interactions avec les occupants des champs contigus. La liberté d&#8217;expression autorise à tenir un discours correspondant à une opinion minoritaire, un discours <i>sérieux</i> ; le délit d&#8217;incitation à la haine raciale constitue sa limite, en tant qu&#8217;il suppose que cette opinion tend à faire de dangereux émules et à engendrer des comportements violents.</p>
<p>Il peut paraître étonnant que l&#8217;on cherche à définir de la même manière les limites du discours humoristique alors qu&#8217;il repose précisément sur l&#8217;établissement d&#8217;un brouillage des rapports entretenus entre le discours et son intention supposée : « l&#8217;humoriste [...] ne dit sérieusement rien, ne prend probablement rien au sérieux mais il en conserve l&#8217;apparence<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> ». Il fait de son discours un lieu indécidable, où l&#8217;intention ne constitue plus un paramètre pertinent pour l&#8217;analyse. Dans cet espace spécifique où sens et opinion ne constituent plus les valeurs cardinales qui président à la construction du discours, il paraît paradoxal de souhaiter sanctionner les écarts de ce discours sur la présomption d&#8217;une intention transgressive. De même, il paraît contradictoire de partir à la recherche de ses limites. Aussi, peut-être que ce que l&#8217;on désigne comme de l&#8217;humour, dès lors que l&#8217;on invoque la liberté d&#8217;expression, n&#8217;en est-il tout simplement pas ?</p>
<p>C&#8217;est à partir de cette réflexion, que nous souhaitons réfléchir à la question posée par une certaine pratique de l&#8217;humour dont on omet de rappeler qu&#8217;elle s&#8217;ancre dans une idéologie républicaine qui entretient un rapport très ambigu à l&#8217;égard des voix minoritaires. On verra notamment que ces impensés de la satire sont visibles dans les pratiques humoristiques revendiquées comme les plus libertaires, comme l&#8217;humour noir surréaliste, et ce afin de remettre en question la viabilité du dialogue que l&#8217;on pense instaurer grâce à ce qui est, en fait, une forme de satire.</p>
<p><i>Satire</i> et non simplement <i>humour</i>, registre finalement peu présent dans les médias dès lors que l&#8217;on tente de le définir. En effet, l&#8217;humour est un discours qui met en jeu la crédibilité de celui qui s&#8217;exprime ; il est l&#8217;inverse d&#8217;une parole d&#8217;autorité et c&#8217;est pourquoi il est si difficile de le décrire et de lui assigner un contenu idéologique précis. Il permet tout et son contraire : divertir gratuitement comme transmettre une vérité philosophique invisible à l&#8217;œil nu ; proposer une critique à la fois tendre et mordante.</p>
<p>Son caractère fuyant le rend tout à fait inapte à la communication médiatique et politique. Comme le rappelait Jean-Marc Moura : « L&#8217;humour réside dans le sentiment de coexistence du rieur et du risible, son sourire est celui d&#8217;un spectateur embarqué, distant et solidaire à la fois de ce dont il s&#8217;amuse<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>. » À l&#8217;inverse, le discours du chroniqueur ou du journaliste doit marquer la distance avec sa cible, pour asseoir sa propre autorité de contradicteur. Ce que nous appelons alors trop vite « humour » est en réalité de la satire : qu&#8217;elle soit potache ou mordante, qu&#8217;elle s&#8217;illustre dans la caricature ou le billet d&#8217;humeur, elle porte une forme d&#8217;autorité et, forte de l&#8217;affirmation préalable du positionnement politique du satiriste, elle dessine les contours des partis et renforce les clivages idéologiques. Plus généralement, elle permet l&#8217;unité autour d&#8217;un principe négatif, la constitution d&#8217;un ennemi commun à partir de son identification et de sa critique.</p>
<p>La difficulté pour le satiriste est alors d&#8217;exprimer des valeurs positives après la destruction de valeurs ennemies. C&#8217;est très souvent pour cette raison que l&#8217;on préfère parler « d&#8217;humour » : plus neutre, plus innocent, l&#8217;humour ne devrait pas susciter de représailles. Au contraire, il devrait permettre la création d&#8217;une communauté idéale de complices : « Les gens sont intelligents, toujours plus intelligents qu&#8217;on ne le croit. On fait confiance à l&#8217;intelligence de l&#8217;humour<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> », a déclaré Luz au moment de la sortie du  numéro de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> du 14 janvier. Autour de cette valeur – l&#8217;humour associé à l&#8217;intelligence -, il est même possible d&#8217;appeler ceux que l&#8217;on vise à rire d&#8217;eux-mêmes, afin précisément de se joindre au reste de la communauté. L&#8217;idéal d&#8217;une satire républicaine, en quelque sorte : celle qui annule les différences ethniques, religieuses ou politiques en vue de l&#8217;avènement d&#8217;une harmonie rationaliste.</p>
<p>En fait, une telle vision du travail satirique tient à une certaine compréhension du rôle politique de l&#8217;humour parmi les intellectuels de gauche français. À ce titre, il paraît intéressant de revenir sur ses fondements, perceptibles dans une œuvre théorique et littéraire : <i>L&#8217;Anthologie de l&#8217;humour noir</i> d&#8217;André Breton<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>. Tout d&#8217;abord parce que cet ouvrage identifie une nouvelle forme de la dérision, l&#8217;humour noir, dont la présence dans les médias ne peut être remise en question, et ce à l&#8217;époque d&#8217;un durcissement idéologique – 1939 – qui n&#8217;est pas sans rappeler notre propre actualité. Ensuite parce qu&#8217;en « inventant » ce registre, Breton pose les bases d&#8217;une réflexion sur le rôle politique de l&#8217;humour, et crée inconsciemment un nouveau type de satire très propre à s&#8217;épanouir dans le contexte de la liberté d&#8217;expression républicaine post-Libération.</p>
<p>L&#8217;<i>Anthologie </i>réunit des textes où l&#8217;humour noir exprime « une révolte supérieure de l&#8217;esprit ». Face à ce qui l&#8217;effraie, l&#8217;aliène, l&#8217;homme fait le choix de se moquer, et de réduire ainsi l&#8217;objet de sa peur : « Le moi se refuse à se laisser entamer, à se laisser imposer la souffrance par les réalités extérieures […] ; bien plus, il fait voir qu[e les traumatismes du monde extérieur] peuvent même lui devenir occasion de plaisir<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> ». Les récents événements ont donné lieu à des dessins de presse porteurs d&#8217;une telle motivation : face à l&#8217;horreur, il est possible de se révolter par l&#8217;humour.  Ils mettaient en scène les dessinateurs de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> au Paradis, en pleine poursuite de leur activité « d&#8217;humoristes ». Par exemple, un dessin d&#8217;Alex mettant ce bon mot au sujet des attentats dans la bouche de Cabu : « Une liquidation le jour des soldes, fallait le faire… ! »<a title="" href="#_ftn6">[6]</a>. Le contexte—un nuage au paradis—, et la mise en valeur de l&#8217;équivoque déréalisent l&#8217;événement, signalant la capacité de l&#8217;esprit humain à s&#8217;extirper du tragique. Révolte singulière en apparence donc, mais dont on sait qu&#8217;elle est tendue vers la contestation collective.</p>
<p>Pour Breton, cet humour a même nécessairement une dimension politique : car ce qui aliène l&#8217;homme, ce n&#8217;est pas uniquement la mort, c&#8217;est aussi l&#8217;organisation sociale du monde capitaliste. C&#8217;est ainsi que l&#8217;humour noir de Swift apparaît, dans la notice qui lui est consacrée, comme guidé par « un besoin frénétique de justice<a title="" href="#_ftn7">[7]</a> ». Quant à l&#8217;obscénité et à la violence des scènes sadiennes, elles naîtraient du désir de faire advenir « la véritable égalité<a title="" href="#_ftn8">[8]</a> ». Le projet esthétique acquiert ainsi une dimension éthique : comme le rappelle Jean-Marc Moura, l&#8217;humour aura beau ici s&#8217;incarner poétiquement, ce sera afin de proposer « manière de vivre (éventuellement de mourir) qui déborde toute préoccupation textuelle<a title="" href="#_ftn9">[9]</a> ». L&#8217;humour noir consiste donc dans la construction d&#8217;une posture humoristique problématique, qui prône le désengagement dans l&#8217;unique but de réaffirmer la dimension contestataire d&#8217;une telle attitude, profondément critique à l&#8217;égard de la société qui l&#8217;entoure. L&#8217;humour noir n&#8217;est donc pas désengagé, mais au contraire, au service des plus faibles.</p>
<p>Aussi, selon Breton, il ne faut pas se méprendre sur le sens de textes mettant en scène les tortures exercées sur les pauvres et les marginaux : « Le mauvais Vitrier » martyrisé par le dandy baudelairien, ou les sévices infligés à Juliette par le très riche Minski. En effet, pour Breton, c&#8217;est précisément à travers la violence infligée au plus faible que l&#8217;on pourra susciter le sentiment d&#8217;indignation qui engendre les vraies révolutions. L&#8217;humour est l&#8217;ennemi de la « sentimentalité à l&#8217;air perpétuellement aux abois<a title="" href="#_ftn10">[10]</a> », l&#8217;ennemi du pathétique. Car comme le rappelait Mireille Rosello, « l’un des paradoxes de l’humour noir consiste précisément à dénoncer l’ambiguïté qui consiste à plaindre le pauvre pour mieux se dérober à son agressive demande de justice<a title="" href="#_ftn11">[11]</a> ». Il s&#8217;agit donc d&#8217;indigner et de provoquer le faible pour le contraindre à réagir, sous le prétexte que lui éviter les coups, le protéger, c&#8217;est déjà le traiter comme un citoyen de seconde zone, destiné à subir la violence des puissants.</p>
<p>Rien de tout à fait différent dans ces propos tenus par Charb en juin 2013 : « C&#8217;est en refusant par peur ou par paternalisme de traiter les musulmans comme des citoyens avant de les traiter comme des croyants qu&#8217;on fait de l&#8217;islam un tabou<a title="" href="#_ftn12">[12]</a> ». Autrement dit, c&#8217;est en partant de la théorie qu&#8217;instaure le contrat social républicain qu&#8217;il faut envisager la représentation de la communauté musulmane, et ce en dépit de ce que l&#8217;on sait des discriminations qu&#8217;elle subit, sur la base même de l&#8217;identité religieuse. Les discours d&#8217;André Breton et de Charb sont, de fait, issus d&#8217;un même moule : celui d&#8217;une compréhension et d&#8217;une pleine intégration des principes de la laïcité républicaine. Dès lors, l&#8217;émancipation du faible dépendrait de sa responsabilisation, quels que soient ses moyens matériels, sa capacité ou non, à répondre aux coups. Cette vision des choses est souvent celle qui justifie actuellement une certaine pratique de la satire–et non de l&#8217;humour–qui a cours dans les médias, et précisément chez <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>.</p>
<p>De fait, les unes de <i>Charlie</i> ont cet objectif : provoquer les plus faibles pour critiquer le traitement qui leur est réservé par les plus forts. La une montrant les esclaves sexuelles détenues par Boko Haram en pleine revendication concernant leur droit aux allocations familiales pouvait ressortir d&#8217;une telle pratique<a title="" href="#_ftn13">[13]</a>. Max Fisher, dans un article étudiant précisément la question d&#8217;un éventuel racisme de <i>Charlie Hebdo, </i>s&#8217;est intéressé à cette couverture et a rappelé qu&#8217;elle était représentative d&#8217;une satire fonctionnant sur différents niveaux de compréhension<a title="" href="#_ftn14">[14]</a>.  Représenter ces victimes revendiquant un droit social au sein même de leur martyr et simultanément rappeler le discours de l&#8217;extrême-droite concernant le soi-disant détournement des droits sociaux par la population immigrée, c&#8217;est provoquer l&#8217;indignation du public à deux niveaux : en mettant en scène d&#8217;une part la pesanteur des violences physiques exercées contre ces femmes et, d&#8217;autre part, la violence symbolique exercée par les discours actuels contre les populations immigrées. Une autre couverture provocante (« à laquelle  vous avez échappé »), celle qui représentait Christiane Taubira sous la forme d&#8217;un singe<a title="" href="#_ftn15">[15]</a>, répondait à la même exigence : indigner en exerçant une violence contre une figure stigmatisée par le discours de l&#8217;extrême-droite. Ces couvertures provocantes ont bénéficié de la protection apportée par le principe de liberté d&#8217;expression, en raison de paramètres qui leur sont en réalité extérieurs : ce qui importe ici, c&#8217;est le contexte de cette prise de parole. <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> est considéré comme un magazine libertaire, détesté de l&#8217;extrême-droite. Nous sommes alors invités à ne pas prendre en compte la production d&#8217;images à caractère raciste, ce qui peut paraître insupportable et incompréhensible aux yeux de ceux qui ne connaissent ni l&#8217;histoire du journal, ni la sociologie de son lectorat. Ou encore, aux yeux de ceux qui ont tout simplement des doutes sur la bonne foi de la ligne éditoriale, sur son éventuelle orientation conservatrice.</p>
<p>Plus ambivalente, une couverture telle que celle qui visait directement les intégristes djihadistes, montrant un imam tenant à bout de bras le Coran censé le protéger d&#8217;une balle qui le transperce avec pour légende : « Tuerie en Égypte : Le Coran c&#8217;est de la merde »<a title="" href="#_ftn16">[16]</a>. Une fois de plus la caricature vise apparemment le discours d&#8217;extrême-droite, insultant envers l&#8217;islam en montrant parallèlement le caractère infondé de la peur de l&#8217;islamisme radical, puisque ses premières victimes sont les musulmans. Mais, simultanément, <i>Charlie</i> invite brutalement la communauté musulmane à se détacher de ce qui ferait soi-disant sa faiblesse, c&#8217;est-à-dire sa croyance dans un contexte républicain où celle-ci ne constitue pas un paramètre identitaire acceptable. Il s&#8217;agit donc bien de provoquer la communauté minoritaire pour lui intimer l&#8217;ordre de se dégager de ce qui fait d&#8217;elle une minorité dans un contexte laïque. Mais dès lors, on lui demande de ressembler au plus puissant : certainement pas d&#8217;inventer une puissance en accord avec son identité. De la même manière, les caricatures que l&#8217;on considère comme blasphématoires–celles qui mettent en scène le prophète Mahomet, malgré l&#8217;interdit qui pèse sur sa représentation–sont des rappels constants aux musulmans de leur différence, et des invitations régulières à se conformer au cadre dominant.</p>
<p>Il serait ainsi bon que nous commencions à comprendre ce que ce type de fonctionnement peut avoir de fallacieux et de relatif. Déjà, Mireille Rosello constatait que dans <i>L&#8217;Anthologie </i>les bourreaux étaient en réalité les seuls bénéficiaires de la liberté offerte par l&#8217;humour noir. Les schémas de domination demeuraient les mêmes et ne faisaient que reproduire les schémas existants. Notamment, elle remarquait que le rôle de victime était essentiellement tenu par une femme et que de nombreux textes étaient en réalité des satires misogynes. La masse des images de violence et des discours tournés contre un type de faiblesse–la féminité–ne produit, au final, aucune indignation du fait du développement d&#8217;un sentiment d&#8217;habitude, ce type de violence faisant par ailleurs partie intégrante de l&#8217;existence d&#8217;une femme. En tant qu&#8217;homme, je peux trouver ce qui leur arrive terrible et réclamer l&#8217;émancipation du sexe faible. En tant que femme, je vois une représentation complaisante de mon vécu et si cela m&#8217;agace, c&#8217;est aussi un objet de lassitude. La liberté demeure donc celle de l&#8217;humoriste et du compilateur ; elle ne touche pas la lectrice, au pire démoralisée, au mieux, furieuse. Et lorsque les femmes prennent exceptionnellement le statut d&#8217;humoristes–deux auteures ont droit à leur notice dans <i>L&#8217;Anthologie–</i>le discours critique leur impose des images stéréotypées (la sorcière, la femme-enfant), qui signalent une incapacité du théoricien de l&#8217;humour noir à offrir à ces figures de réels espaces de liberté<a title="" href="#_ftn17">[17]</a>.</p>
<p>Ainsi, la conception d&#8217;une satire impitoyable, car révolutionnaire, n&#8217;est possible que sous un certain point de vue, celui du dominant. De la même manière que la satire ne peut permettre l&#8217;intégration de sa cible que du point de vue du satiriste, persuadé d&#8217;accomplir un devoir citoyen, en invitant les minorités à rire d&#8217;elles-mêmes au nom de l&#8217;égalité de droit. Ce fonctionnement nous renvoie au contrat social universaliste propre à la culture française qui, rappelons-le, est l&#8217;émanation d&#8217;un groupe relativement homogène : les acquis de la Révolution française et la mise en place de la laïcité sont le fait d&#8217;hommes blancs, de confession judéo-chrétienne, excluant les femmes dans un premier temps–grandes oubliées du suffrage universel, et ce jusqu&#8217;en 1946—, et, plus tard, les populations colonisées—le code de l&#8217;indigénat limitant de manière discriminatoire le champ d&#8217;application des principes républicains. Si cela répondait à un trouble de l&#8217;identité blanche elle-même–la laïcité doit permettre de lutter contre les tensions confessionnelles qui opposent les catholiques et les protestants–force est de constater que c&#8217;est aujourd&#8217;hui cette identité qui est majoritaire, alors même que les équilibres sociaux se sont trouvés modifiés et que la population française est désormais confrontée au défi de la diversité<a title="" href="#_ftn18">[18]</a>. Jusqu&#8217;à aujourd&#8217;hui, la réponse trouvée à cet enjeu a consisté à réaffirmer les principes républicains et à renforcer la laïcité en légiférant sur les signes ostensibles<a title="" href="#_ftn19">[19]</a> dans l&#8217;idée que des valeurs qui visent à annuler les différences demeurent les bonnes ; et que sévir contre ceux qui les contestent c&#8217;est précisément leur montrer qu&#8217;ils font partie prenante de la République. Interdire le port du voile intégral<a title="" href="#_ftn20">[20]</a> dans la rue a ainsi été justifié par la volonté de protéger les musulmans contre leur propre religion, considérée comme un facteur de division du tissu social. Annuler leur différence en leur rappelant leur statut de citoyen à part entière, c&#8217;est toujours simultanément leur refuser le droit de s&#8217;exprimer sur les effets que peut avoir le système en place sur leurs existences, sur les discriminations qu&#8217;ils subissent.</p>
<p>Il paraît donc tout à fait contradictoire de faire reposer, aujourd&#8217;hui, la provocation satirique sur l&#8217;exercice de la liberté d&#8217;expression, tout en se justifiant de la légèreté du discours humoristique, discours que seuls ceux qui se revendiquent d&#8217;un point de vue culturellement différent ne seraient pas à même d&#8217;apprécier. La satire, telle qu&#8217;elle est pratiquée dans le contexte de journaux et magazines se revendiquant des principes de la République, n&#8217;est pas simplement critique : elle est invasive, et ce au point d&#8217;affirmer l&#8217;intérêt qu&#8217;il y a pour sa cible à être attaquée.</p>
<p>Il ne s&#8217;agit pas de douter des motivations des journalistes de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>, mais plus largement, d&#8217;envisager la possibilité que notre vision de la satire soit en réalité biaisée : elle tient à l&#8217;idée qu&#8217;en République, tous ont les mêmes droits, et que ceux qui n&#8217;en profitent pas n&#8217;ont qu&#8217;à se manifester et les réclamer. Les présenter comme des victimes ou évoquer leurs différences, les plis et la complexité de leur identité, serait leur faire injure. En conséquence, les provoquer revient à leur lire leurs droits, à leur fournir un passeport. Cependant, ce raisonnement ne tient pas compte de la non-validité de sa prémisse : l&#8217;échec de la société démocratique tient à ses inégalités, dont souffre tout particulièrement en France la communauté musulmane. Tant que l&#8217;égalité de droit ne sera pas réalisée, il n&#8217;y aura aucune raison de considérer que nous pouvons tous rire des mêmes choses.</p>
<p>L&#8217;attentat de<i> Charlie Hebdo </i>se compte parmi de nombreux malentendus qui émaillent le dialogue de la République avec ses minorités. La pratique française d&#8217;une satire républicaine, visant à l&#8217;universalité alors qu&#8217;elle n&#8217;émane que d&#8217;un groupe pouvant jouir pleinement de ses droits démocratiques, est l’un de ces malentendus. Aucune compréhension n&#8217;émergera tant que nous n&#8217;aurons pas pris conscience de l&#8217;ampleur du chantier démocratique, tant que nous n&#8217;aurons pas même pris conscience qu&#8217;il est nécessaire de repenser ses fondations. Il ne s&#8217;agit nullement d&#8217;appeler à l&#8217;autocensure, et on rappellera à juste titre que la presse satirique a également longtemps critiqué les institutions dominantes—<i>Charlie Hebdo</i> s&#8217;est aussi violemment attaqué à la religion catholique. Il s&#8217;agit plutôt, pour la presse, de s&#8217;interroger sur les discours qu&#8217;elle véhicule, et au nom de quelles valeurs elle s&#8217;en justifie. La satire n&#8217;est pas innocente, c&#8217;est d&#8217;ailleurs ce qui fait tout son intérêt ; elle n&#8217;est pas déconnectée par nature des conditions socio-historiques dans lesquelles elle s&#8217;énonce, et c&#8217;est ce qui fait son efficacité. En prendre conscience, c&#8217;est déjà réfléchir à l&#8217;impact de son travail et comprendre que les valeurs qui garantissent la liberté d&#8217;expression instaurent une économie du rire à deux vitesses.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/de-lhumour-noir-aux-caricatures-impenses-dune-tradition-satirique/">De l&#8217;humour noir aux caricatures : impensés d&#8217;une tradition satirique</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Braving Oceans: Migration and Subjective “Illegality” from the Pilgrim Fathers to Boat Migrants</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/braving-oceans-migration-subjective-illegality-pilgrim-fathers-boat-migrants/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:20:22 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>One of the greatest lies in the modern history of human migration is famously etched at the feet of Lady Liberty herself. The inscription boldly proclaims only a partial reality:[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/braving-oceans-migration-subjective-illegality-pilgrim-fathers-boat-migrants/">Braving Oceans: Migration and Subjective “Illegality” from the Pilgrim Fathers to Boat Migrants</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>One of the greatest lies in the modern history of human migration is famously etched at the feet of Lady Liberty herself. The inscription boldly proclaims only a partial reality: “<i>give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door</i>!”</p>
<p>In the 239-year history of the United States, the closest this would-be nation has come to accomplishing that largely unfulfilled promise of immigration at Ellis Island is letting in the multitudes of Europeans who have arrived on its shores in several waves since the earliest decades of its founding. Like the Statue of Liberty itself, a gift  from one occidental community to another, most arrived in the United States with little more than the shirts on their backs as their sole worldly possession, but a path to possible acceptance and integration nevertheless.</p>
<p>Other would-be immigrants from elsewhere: the Orient, the non-western world, and nether regions have found the fabled “golden door” of America firmly shut to this promise.</p>
<p>Look no further for the evidence for this assertion than the uninformed, yet calculated statements of Donald Trump, the man who might easily become President of the United States were the presidential elections to be held today. In announcing his candidacy for the Republican nomination on June 16, 2015, Trump boldly <a href="http://time.com/3923128/donald-trump-announcement-speech/#3923128/donald-trump-announcement-speech/">declared to global media</a> that “…<i>when Mexico sends its people, they’re not sending their best…they’re sending people that have lots of problems, and they’re bringing those problems</i>…”</p>
<p>Is that not, in fact, the promise enshrined at the feet of Lady Liberty? If Trump’s inarticulate and rather unfortunate assertions had any element of truth in them, why should Mexico not send their worst when America, arguably the most prosperous country yet in the history of human civilization, boldly promises to welcome “…poor huddled masses yearning to breathe free…” and make better citizens out of them?  How does this country conceive of immigrants, and of the idea of freedom itself?</p>
<p>Opinion polls have since shown that Trump’s contemptuous attitude towards would-be immigrants is actually a pervasive sentiment across the contemporary American political landscape and within the cultural mainstream, one <a href="http://pollingreport.com/S-Z.htm#Trump">shared by many respondents</a> in opinion polls around the country.</p>
<p>Trump’s claims were not only outrageous and divisive, they were also largely untrue. When most countries around the world today send their immigrants, Uncle Sam demands that only their brightest, their most talented and most diligent be allowed to remain.</p>
<p>Except for the State Department’s <a href="http://www.state.gov/j/prm/ra/admissions/index.htm">Refugee Admissions Program</a> and the <a href="http://www.uscis.gov/green-card/other-ways-get-green-card/green-card-through-diversity-immigration-visa-program/green-card-through-diversity-immigrant-visa-program">Diversity Immigrant Visa Lottery Program</a>, current immigration laws of the United States demand that <a href="http://travel.state.gov/content/visas/english/immigrate.html">visa applicants</a> and travelers demonstrate binding ties to their home countries such as property and family. It is expected that legal immigrants be educated with at least a high school diploma. Most of those who come through legal immigration channels, in fact, arrive with far more than that, comprising the upper echelon of society in their countries of origin.</p>
<p>Statistics from the <a href="http://www.census.gov/">United States Census Bureau </a> and Data from the <a href="http://www.dhs.gov/office-immigration-statistics">Department of Homeland Security</a> show that the more substantive percentage of immigrants to America are legal immigrants and not illegal immigrants, as falsely claimed by Trump and believed by most of his sycophantic followers.</p>
<p>From Silicon Valley to Wall Street, Fortune 500 companies and other major economic stakeholders are staffed with some of the most educated and talented immigrants anywhere in the world.</p>
<p>The denial of entry to those most in need is not exclusive to the United States. Across the Atlantic, the ignominy of the current immigration discourse in Europe is sadly similar to that championed by the far-right in America.</p>
<p>This summer has seen perhaps the highest mass transnational migration of human beings the world has seen this century. From the war in Syria, the post-Gadhafi instability in Libya, and the continuing political and economic crises in several parts of Asia, central and North Africa, refugees have fled by boats and land routes in desperate bids to reach the relative peace and stability of European shores. <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/09/syrias-refugee-crisis-in-numbers/">The Syrian refugee crisis</a> alone has generated over 4 million refugees in neighboring countries, with over half of the country’s population displaced.</p>
<p>Their mass arrival in many parts of Europe has been met with scorn akin to that faced by the most outcast of minority groups in Europe, such as the Romani, have faced in their history of transmigration across Europe.</p>
<p>From train stations to open fields, refugees and migrants<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> have been left to perish in the elements while European politicians dither in deciding what to do about and with them. Only recent coverage of children’s bodies washing up on European shores and deaths of dozens of migrants on a truck in Austria have spurred enough outcry to generate a more organized response from the EU.</p>
<p>Ironically, the greatest migrants the world has ever known, Europeans, now refuse to countenance those caught in similar predicaments and circumstances as thousands of their ancestors.</p>
<p>From the revered Pilgrim Fathers who arrived in the so-called “New World” to Boer Trekkers in the Veldts of Southern Africa, Syrian, Asian, and North African migrants are now undertaking the same perilous journeys for similar reasons –religious freedom, economic opportunity and safety.</p>
<p>Everywhere they arrived across “new worlds,” from the Americas, through Africa, Asia, Australia to New Zealand, European migrants supplanted autochthones, transforming the very definition of citizenship in the process: If you brave oceans and arrive anywhere in the world, if you fancy your destination, if you plant roots and make it your own, you may belong and claim a place…but only if you are European!</p>
<p>Look no further for affirmation of this perverse doctrine of citizenship than the fates of native communities&#8211; Aborigines, Maoris, and Zulus, and Native Americans in the Americas, as they continue to fight for recognition in their native lands.</p>
<p>Yet, whereas the exploits of the Pilgrim Fathers or the European explorers are lauded as brave, intrepid and adventurous in historical accounts, those of the current boat migrants and refugees who are in similar circumstances are described as desperate, and even foolish, for jumping on rickety boats and risking all with their families to disturb the peace, tranquility, and  more critically the <i>economies</i> and narrowly defined national characters of Europe. The regard for the quality of an endeavor, and the humanization of those involved, still depends on the place of origin of the subjects in question.</p>
<p>The hypocrisy of “open borders” is unfathomable when you contrast how migrants have been treated in the summer of 2015 with discourses of global trade and economic exchange. “Globalization is inevitable!” “To trade…everyone!” “Open borders!” Weaker countries in the developing world are constantly harassed, bullied, humiliated and reprimanded by the World Trade Organization, the European Union and other hegemons of neoliberal reforms to open their borders to global trade, as long as their people always stay inside those borders.</p>
<p>Had Cecil the Lion’s murderer been denied a visa to enter Zimbabwe, you can bet your last dollar that the State Department would have been furious at the Zimbabwe government for being foolish and petulant over a “few travel bans” on Zimbabwean authorities for “human rights violations.”</p>
<p>As soon as conflicts erupt or are instigated through the interventions of European powers or their American counterparts in the postcolonies, however, those same advocates of the “free movement” of (European?) people and goods change their tone and cry out for their borders to be closed. “Keep the hordes at bay,” they weep, “lest Europe collapses under the weight of the problems they bring with them.”</p>
<p>Thus, we now have arrived at another shameful milestone in the history of the human community. Future conflicts will be deadlier precisely because belligerents will be reassured by the fact that the Europeans and Americans who have long dominated the economic and political landscape will stand by and do nothing as countries are ravaged and civilians displaced. They also know no one will directly intervene to stop them and, more disturbingly, they know Europeans will promptly shut their borders to innocents trying to flee the atrocities.</p>
<p>On Wednesday, September 2, 2015, <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/03/world/middleeast/brutal-images-of-syrian-boy-drowned-off-turkey-must-be-seen-activists-say.html?_r=0">body of a dead boy washed up on the beach</a> of a popular tourist destination in Turkey. Only in death was the boy recognized as a human child in crisis. There cannot be a more symbolic reminder of the world’s failure to offer refuge to those who seek it, just as Pilgrim Fathers once sought refuge from their oppressors in Europe. The boy was found face down in the sand as if the innocence of his young life that was prematurely extinguished had proclaimed a big “shame on you Europe…I have left <i>your world</i> for a much better place!”</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/braving-oceans-migration-subjective-illegality-pilgrim-fathers-boat-migrants/">Braving Oceans: Migration and Subjective “Illegality” from the Pilgrim Fathers to Boat Migrants</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>À la naissance du sens (Poetry)</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/arts/la-naissance-du-sens-poetry/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:19:57 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Si l&#8217;on s&#8217;en tient à l&#8217;étymologie, le mot expression – dérivé du latin tardif expressio « action de faire sortir en pressant », du verbe exprimere (de ex et premere)[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/la-naissance-du-sens-poetry/">À la naissance du sens (Poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Si l&#8217;on s&#8217;en tient à l&#8217;étymologie, le mot expression – dérivé du latin tardif <i>expressio </i>«<i> action de faire sortir en pressant </i>», du verbe <i>exprimere </i>(de <i>ex </i>et<i> premere</i>) –<i> </i>implique déjà un &#8220;sortir hors de&#8221;, une action ou un acte d&#8217;extériorisation.</p>
<p>Or, si l&#8217;on passe de l&#8217;origine du mot au concept, on voit que l&#8217;acte d&#8217;expression en tant qu&#8217;urgence d&#8217;extériorisation et d&#8217;explicitation, convoquant à la fois socialité et individualité, corporéité et normativité, ne peut être aujourd&#8217;hui recompris qu&#8217;à partir de la pensée de Merleau-Ponty ou d&#8217;une phénoménologie sémiotique, dont le défi « est bien de respecter le caractère à la fois <i>public </i>et <i>incarné </i>de l’expression » (V. Rosenthal, Y.-M.Visetti).</p>
<p>Le bref texte poétique ici proposé, <i>À la naissance du sens </i>aborde la problématique de l’expression, et de sa liberté, pour ainsi dire à l&#8217;état naissant, sous l&#8217;impulsion et la &#8216;pression&#8217; du souffle et de la voix. Car l&#8217;entente seule du tremblement d&#8217;air de l&#8217;autre, dans ma proximité à son souffle et, inversement, de ma voix au dehors, dans l&#8217;écoute de l&#8217;autre, atteste enfin ma voix. C&#8217;est de cet échange de voix qui s&#8217;entendent et se répondent, de cette expérience d&#8217;une réversibilité sensible, qu&#8217;émerge tout sens. En termes merleau-pontiens « le sens est pris dans la parole et la parole dans l&#8217;existence extérieure du sens. »</p>
<p>De ce double mouvement, mouvement chiasmatique, entre le dedans et le dehors, le moi et l&#8217;autre, s&#8217;ouvre alors un nouvel horizon éminemment éthique, si par éthique &#8211; comme le souligne magnifiquement Patrick Leconte &#8211; «<i> </i>il faut entendre d’abord et essentiellement [...] cette modalité de l’exister, selon laquelle le soi accède à soi dans la proximité de l’autre<i> </i>».</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;" align="center">                             <em>À  la naissance du sens</em></h3>
<ul class="poetry">
<li style="margin-left: 20px;">De ta chair sonore</li>
<li style="margin-left: 8px;">au dedans</li>
<li style="margin-left: 1px;">doux vibre silencieux</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0px;">ton souffle charnel</li>
<li style="margin-left: 3px;">et fugitif couve et bat</li>
<li style="margin-left: 3px;">de tes poumons à ta gorge</li>
<li style="margin-left: 8px;">Sous ton plexus solaire</li>
<li style="margin-left: 15px;">sous tes rondes papilles</li>
<li style="margin-left: 20px;">mûre s&#8217;ouvre comme une pêche</li>
<li style="margin-left: 40px;">aux rougeurs d&#8217;été ta voix</li>
<li style="margin-left: 60px;">à ma caresse vocale</li>
<li style="margin-left: 80px;">Fautive à l&#8217;entente de mon souffle</li>
<li style="margin-left: 210px;">qui m&#8217;échappe</li>
<li style="margin-left: 218px;">de ton souffle</li>
<li style="margin-left: 225px;">qui s&#8217;élance</li>
<li style="margin-left: 175px;">je m&#8217;abreuve alors</li>
<li style="margin-left: 215px;">de nos voix</li>
<li style="margin-left: 225px;">au dehors</li>
<li style="margin-left: 120px;">et je bois et m’émerveille</li>
<li style="margin-left: 140px;">à l&#8217;estuaire du son</li>
<li style="margin-left: 80px;">à la naissance du sens</li>
</ul>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/la-naissance-du-sens-poetry/">À la naissance du sens (Poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Writing Rites of Reclamation: Blackness and Caribbean Remembering</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/writing-rites-reclamation-blackness-caribbean-remembering/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2015 02:19:25 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[postcolonialist]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>In his Nobel Prize speech Derek Walcott noted that a “sense of elegy, of loss, even of degenerative mimicry” defines our understanding of the sweep of Caribbean and arguably post-plantation[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/writing-rites-reclamation-blackness-caribbean-remembering/">Writing Rites of Reclamation: Blackness and Caribbean Remembering</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In his <a href="http://www.nobelprize.org" target="_blank">Nobel Prize</a> speech Derek Walcott noted that a “sense of elegy, of loss, even of degenerative mimicry” defines our understanding of the sweep of Caribbean and arguably post-plantation era history. Walcott considers post-plantation history and culture “fragmented”; yet, despite the fragmentary nature of Caribbean and Afro-American texts, one theme emerges: the act of writing itself becomes an act of reclamation, a repossessing of the past as many Creole writers “celebrate … real presence” through composition by filling in historical fissures ruptured by slavery, capitalism, sexism, environmental disasters, and cultural hijacking. In other words, Creole writers reclaim ancestral authority through storytelling. I believe that in the constructing of text the performative act of writing itself becomes a <i>retirer d’en bas de l’eau</i>, a ritual reclaiming of souls. These post-plantation texts, therefore, uphold a sense of shared memory.</p>
<p>According to Maya Deren in her seminal book <i>Divine Horsemen: The Living Gods of Haiti</i>, the Vodou rite of reclamation or the <i>retirer d</i><i>’</i><i>en bas de l</i><i>’</i><i>eau, </i>enables a family to “reclaim [an ancestor’s] soul from the waters of the abyss…and to lodge it in a govi [pot] where it may henceforth be …consulted … and so may participate in all the decisions that normally unite the members of a family in counsel” (46). While seemingly “primitive,” this ritual perseveres in the modern age because “the enduring presence of so many dead demands that it be tried again and again” (Lowe). This rite enables participants, both dead and alive, to performatively enact force in the material world through shared decision-making. I would like to argue that by bringing the dead back to life as a writer does when composing a text, in particular within a ritualized context such as publication and distribution, he/she enables a reading audience to participate in a cultural ritual, a performative act, one with external consequences: readers are affected by the voices they contact between the pages. Those rallied spirits alive in the book join the world once again as active participants. Like reading, Haitian Vodou is, through its “worship of metaphysical forces…ritualistic, rather than meditative, and involve[s] … [sustaining metaphysical forces] by feeding, or sacrifice, and [the spirits’] benediction [is] maintained by propitiation” (65). A Haitian’s religious system, Deren claims, “must do more than give him moral substance… it must provide the <i>means</i> for living. It must serve the organism as well as the psyche” (73). I aim to prove that the feeding of the spirits occurs in the reading, the praise in the writing. And the dead speak from the pages.</p>
<p>Collective memory is maintained through the performative act of writing. The writer becomes the <i>mambo </i>(priestess); the reader becomes a <i>hounsis </i>(initiate). Narrative construction must serve the writer, reader, and history by, according to Joseph Roach, “juxtapos[ing] living memory as restored behavior against a historical archive of scripted records” (242). Fiction functions as a record, promoting and maintaining culture. The voice of a text resounds with performative cultural iterations which reinscribe the identity of the writer, the reader, and the characters in the book. Too often readers are exposed to singular, authoritative voices from the Euro-centric majority and so marginalized voices are forgotten. While Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, and Willa Cather write very differently, their narratives contribute to a North American western-centered sense of ethos: white, individualized, rooted, whole. But the Afro-American or Caribbean writer, as suggested by Derek Walcott, inherits a narrative fraught with loss and division, a history defined by the other. How then, can a post-plantation era writer contribute to his sense of cultural history? By resurrecting the past and offering, as Roach claims, “mnemonic materials- speech, images, gestures- that supplement or contest the authority of ‘documents’ in [any] historiographic  tradition”(242). Through the act of writing itself a Creole writer reestablishes the identity of ancestors and so weaves the past with the present. I see the dead speak through the text itself and shape the present in the extra-semiotic world. The text houses the cultural identity “of successive generations that sustain different social and cultural identities” (Roach 242), like the govi pot houses the dead.</p>
<p>James Weldon Johnson offers a complicated narrative in his fictionalized memoir <i>The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man</i>, published in 1912. In his fabricated autobiography, “a veil has been drawn aside: the reader…[is] given a view of the inner life of the Negro in America… [and is] initiated into the ‘freemasonry,’ as it were, of the race” (Johnson 3). Theorist Brent Hayes Edwards claims that the novel offers a “small but crucial shift of authority” from an Anglo-centered narration to an Afro-centered narration (41).</p>
<p>But defining who that narrator is becomes challenging. The speaker is of mixed race- his father is white, his mother black- but his mother never communicates this to him, and he defers to a white identity. After hearing her son call a classmate “nigger,” the speaker’s mother “turned on [him and said] ‘Don’t you ever use that word again’” (7). Unwittingly, the speaker is forbidden to use a word which is a label of self-representation, albeit one of slander and shame. But the narrator, who is arguably a construction of Johnson’s psyche or an amalgamation of his personal experience, is <i>writing</i> the word and indeed his fictionalized self in the story <i>speaks</i> this word. The written signifier, “nigger,” stands in for the self, the “I,” and maintains a sense of permanence in shared memory as it is written and published. But the “I” in this tale is not the “signified” Johnson even though the text was published within the autobiographical genre, although it later was recanted and Johnson claimed the text as fiction. Herein lays complicated notions surrounding presence and absence in Afro-American texts. I rely on Deconstructionist Jacques Derrida in order to mine the self-referential nature of ‘beingness’ in text. The binary of who one is, is reliant on who one is not. We understand black in relation to white, reader in relation to writer, self in relation to someone else. Yet the true nature of the self is unknowable, there is no Platonic essence, as the self is an identifier for some indescribable interior consciousness which is paradoxically understood by who one is not. To further complicate deconstructionist notions of being, our Platonic understanding of self suggests a static, unchanging identity, a singularness, a purity. In a contact zone and in the context of postcolonial theory, I believe there is an added danger to trying to define static selfhood. If the narrator of <i>Autobiography of an Ex-Coloured Man</i> is defined in a singular way, he cannot have any other identity, he is solely white or solely “nigger”. But readers and narrators cannot get around self-referents. This is Johnson’s entire point- the limits of language and of consciousness. For the speaker there is a sense of Derridean essential drift, for the self and the identifier never align- the “nigger” and the “I,” as he doesn’t identify fully as black and definitely not as “nigger.” He continues to climb the American socio-economic ladder through playing ragtime music and in his later years as a white businessman. The narrator passes back and forth from the white and black world, defined by the gaze of others both black and white. Arguably, Johnson was not interested in a definitive notion of race or identity as the narrator remains unnamed; rather Johnson chose to pen a text representative of black experience at the turn of the century. This shifting sense of identity, this “dual personality” actually leaves room for Derridean <i>différance</i>, a play on the French for “to defer” as well as “to differ,” by deconstructing notions of selfhood, race, and representation. According to Heather Russell, the “narrative structure simultaneously veils and conceals while unveiling and revealing,” ‘leaving its readers’ “tasked with standing at the gateway… of <i>The Autobiography’s </i>hybrid structure” (Russell 30). Suzanne Scafe notes that with Johnson’s fragmentary voice of re- and un- representation, he “foreground[s]… the constructedness of the ‘I’ identity and privilege[es] the texture of experience and memory” (190). Through the “simmering gumbo pot” (Cartwright 100) of “I,” “nigger,” “white,” and “black,” “speaker” and “author,” Johnson summons readers to participate in his narrative by forcing them to wade through his various representations. Like the “composite and multiple” spirits, “every first-person consciousness, every “I”, is an assemblage, a plural ‘we’” (Cartwright 100). I argue that by adding an assemblage of narrative voices to the Afro-American literary tapestry, Johnson reclaims the unspoken lives of millions of men and women who have passed as white, or who have identified as black. The <i>retirer d’en bas de l’eau</i> of giving voice to the dead remedies breaches in black history by establishing the presence of an everyman, not deconstructing identity, but re-constructing it. This turn of the century text seems to me to take up Derek Walcott’s call for acts of presence through art, “allowing the group [(readers)] to act itself out by reiterating its structure [(identity)] and commenting on its [own] values” (Brown 210). I read <i>The</i> <i>Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man</i> as a govi pot to consult on my road to selfhood as I shift through fluid self-representations, the narrator providing me a predecessor to consult for advice through the performance of race and identity.</p>
<p>If Johnson’s <i>Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man</i> allows Johnson to reclaim shared memory through narration, then Eileen M. Julien’s <i>Travels with Mae: Scenes from a New Orleans Girlhood </i>(2009) addresses the specific and personal dead instead of the death of assumed identifiers. Julien’s text functions specifically because she writes from place- a contact zone. Common culture makes for “ersatz families both created and reinforced through ritualizing” (Brown 207). The setting of New Orleans offers an amalgamation of people, voices, perspectives, and opportunities for filial connections, but grounded in a specific culture where “community is both occasion for and the product of its own ritual activity” (Brown 210). Due to the multitude of voices (in addition to a factious history of violence, environmental disaster, and gentrification) a single voice can get lost. Readers can approach Julien’s text as a reclamation of the spirit of her dead mother. The performative act of writing this memoir contributes to the uniqueness of post-plantation shared memory and reclaims the past of New Orleans, her ancestral space.</p>
<p>For anthropologist and Vodou initiate Karen McCarthy Brown, the term “Vodou” was coined by outsiders and considered a religion, but its practitioners do not “believe” in Vodou, rather, they claim to “serve the spirits” (205). With this emphasis on action or <i>serving,</i> Vodou ceremonies illustrate that performative ritual creates a symbiotic relationship between the living and the dead: “the living need advice, warning, protection provided by…the spirits… The spirits, in turn, have to be…honored if they are to muster the strength… to protect the living” (206). It seems the act of performative remembrance is perhaps all the more vital for underrepresented populations. According to Keith Cartwright: “Our corrective effort to go to the mouth of the govi of New Orleans… calls for difficult acts of listening to subalternized voices that are often poorly represented, if recorded at all, in available texts. These voices that would balance our vision and open our eyes to clashing energies and contradictory impulses have been censored, silenced, and ignored” (101). Often readers are granted a glimpse into the lives of poor, marginalized black New Orleanians in fiction, but Eileen M. Julien offers readers an under-represented demographic: that of a middle class black girl who attended bourgeoisie balls, social clubs and parties. The members of the black middle class in New Orleans, as portrayed by Julien, developed their own exclusive subculture that was not a reaction to whiteness but rather a celebration of the presence of Blackness. Julien’s story unfolds in a series of vignettes reminiscent of Derek Walcott’s Nobel Prize speech on the fragmentation of Caribbean history, which I see Julien repossessing. <i>Travels with Mae</i> is largely a celebratory novel filled with food, family, and humid New Orleans, neighbors where okra grows in the backyard, jazz music plays in the music hall, and dainty party dresses swirl around girls’ ankles.</p>
<p>Several vignettes in the memoir present insight into Julien’s relationship with her mother, most notably her mother’s last days when age and fear beset both Mae (Julien’s mother) and her aunt Fe. Julien “spend[s] Thanksgiving at home because death lurks here and everywhere” (99). Mae and Fe fret over food for mourners after a series of neighbors and relatives pass away. The sharing of food, in particular gumbo which is mentioned several times in the memoir, which I believe becomes a performative reclamation of the dead as those alive eat to remind themselves that they are still living and memorialize, through the act of living, those who have died. Gumbo, known widely as a New Orleans dish, also reminds those consuming it of their African heritage, as “Gumbo, Louisiana-style, shares common ingredients with Senegalese <i>suppakanja</i>”(105).</p>
<p>Another vignette, narrated through journal entries, brings Mae to life but in one of Julien’s dreams: “Her hands on my forehead- joy, ecstasy to know that even though she was dead, she was somehow alive!” (113). Interestingly Julien ends her memoir not with the death of her mother, but a scene when her mother was still alive, seeing her off at the airport, when she gestured to her mother from the terminal and her mother “came back!” (129). I offer that the return of her mother’s spirit and body seems an appropriate moment to end the text as Julien’s book becomes the public govi for Mae, “[b]ecause… of them, of <i>my</i> them, all that will be left is me, a book like this one, and my pen” (100). The use of the first person pronoun (<i>my)</i>, and Julien’s claim over the city of New Orleans, is a performative act of reclamation. The ritual enactment of writing and reading <i>Travels with Mae, </i>or what Keith Cartwright infers is a “govi text,” seems to me to expose readers to her memorialized past, and brings her mother to life.</p>
<p>A fictive tale, <i>Praisesong for the Widow</i> by Paule Marshall (1983) offers another method for summoning ancestry and maintaining shared memory: ritual movement through the abject. Protagonist Avey/Avatara’s rebirth launches her through vomit, excrement, blood, and abjection to bring her dead ancestors back to life, as well as herself. It seems appropriate to mark this text as distinctly Modernist due to its self-conscious narration, rejection of Enlightenment notions such as free will, and its subtle commentary on fragmented family life in the face of racism and industrialization. Modernism is often thought to be a movement at odds with black/Caribbean/Afro-American experience. But Paul Gilroy in <i>The Black Atlantic </i>notes that some Afro-American literary ventures represent the notion of “the slave sublime” in which “the concentrated intensity of the slave experience is something that marks out blacks as the first truly modern people, handling the nineteenth century dilemmas and difficulties which would become the substance of everyday life in Europe a century later” (220-221). Paule Marshall, who was born to Barbadian parents and grew up in Brooklyn, was likely familiar with historical and cultural fracturing, and her protagonist Avery/Avatara has “slave sublime” experiences on her cruise vacation to the Caribbean in order for Marshall to explore her connection with our Afro-American past by “complicat[ing] individualist notions of personhood, authorship, filiation, or salvation, [by] present[ing] Avey as an avatar of lives that have preceded her, an avatar ritually bound to generations past and future” (Cartwright 50). Unlike the speaker in <i>Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man</i> who performs fluid identifiers and  presents readers with an ancestry of changeable identification in order to complicate our understanding of beingness, Avey of <i>Praisesong for the Widow</i> moves through an abject bodily experience to divorce her mind from the body, and in bodily absence focuses on the spirit, or inner world.</p>
<p>The notion of bodily absence is of course a familiar one in Caribbean culture. Slavery forces an abject state because the physical body is othered; a body absent of consciousness or soul is arguably not a person. According to Carole Sweeney, “the optimum functioning of the slave system required not only utter disregard for the…slave body but also the denial of the existence of consciousness in individual slaves” (52). Under the terrors of slavery the body was the privileged binary within the body/mind binary, therefore the slave mind did not exist for white slave owners and so slaves functioned as soulless commodities. Economics deemed the slave body “collective” because slaves were only worth the value of their labor (Sweeney 52). Any fungible slave represented labor, and so could stand in for another slave. Despite Marshall’s heavy hand at characterization- Avey is a well-rounded character- she is just a body, a slave, albeit a victim of Anglophile consumerism rather than plantation labor. Avey’s life is absorbed by materialism— she buys fashionable clothes and expensive dinners. She lacks self-actualization; she is not a whole person but an unconscious body. After her rebirth into full spiritual and cultural consciousness, her <i>retirer d</i><i>’</i><i>en bas de l</i><i>’</i><i>eau</i> or reclamation of her soul, I see her as standing in for anybody but this time, she “situates [her] place in an historical continuum,” in memory (Sweeney 52).</p>
<p>I’d like to posit that we first encounter the performative, ritualistic aspect of a <i>retirer d</i><i>’</i><i>en bas de l</i><i>’</i><i>eau </i>at Ibo Landing, where Aunt Cuney tells young Avey about the Ibo slaves who walked off the slave ship and chose to drown in defiance against their enslavement. This first gesture initiated by ancestors, constitutes a collective defiance against the white slave owners who attempted to make slaves of both the Ibos’ bodies and history. The Ibos’ drowning, returning to what a Haitian may call the Waters of the Abyss where the loa and souls of the dead reside, brought the living— Avey— back to life.</p>
<p>The blurring of lines between the living and the dead plays out through abject instances in the novel. Avey’s vacation on the cruise ship the <i>Bianca Pride</i> (White Pride) could be likened to traveling a kind of perverse Middle Passage and she experiences this voyage in an abject state. On board Avey eats a European- style parfait and “her stomach, her entire midsection felt odd.”  She maintained— “[I]t felt like a huge tumor had suddenly ballooned up at her center” (Marshall 50, 52). Avey’s discomfort continued until she seemed “in the grip of a powerful hallucinogen- something that had dramatically expanded her vision, offering her a glimpse of things that were beyond her comprehension” (59). In this semi-catatonic state Avey escapes the ship to the island of Grenada where she finds herself in an “unlikely sacred room of mourning (a hotel)” (Cartwright 51). From there she smells a child’s filth and sweat (arguably her own); she releases her bowels on a small boat and finds herself anointed while sick by rum shack owner Legbert who represents Papa Legba the loa of the crossroads, and his daughter, perhaps a representation of an initiate, or <i>hunsis.</i> In one of the final scenes in the novel Avey attends the nation dance where diasporic Caribbean attendees dance for their ancestors, “drawing on…[a] shared pool of memories…to reconstruct [ritual African dances]” (Brown 209). Avey performs her own nation dance; her subconscious connects with the other dancers, moves beyond her body, and she suddenly remembers Ibo Landing, the resting place of her African ancestors. It seems Avey’s symbolic death and rebirth as she proceeds through abject stages of physical discomfort, allow her to reclaim her ancestral spirits, in particular the spirit of her mentor Aunt Cuney and the spirits of the Ibos. I see Ibo Landing as also offering up a ritualized space for a <i>retirer d</i><i>’</i><i>en bas de l</i><i>’</i><i>eau. </i>The water submerges the slave bodies and Avey’s repeated visits memorialize those under the water, making for a performative, ritualized space. Avatara resolves to bring her grandchildren there and share her ancestral past. Marshall’s narration reverses the intentions of slave owners who attempted to empty the Afro-Caribbean body of consciousness. By emptying herself of consciousness through physical abjection, I see Avatara standing in for her ancestors themselves and reaches back through history to reclaim collective memory in the govi pot of the body, no longer mindless, no longer soulless, but conscious.</p>
<p>I conclude with arguably my most definitive offering of the <i>retirer d</i><i>’</i><i>en bas de l</i><i>’</i><i>eau</i>, Toni Morrison’s<i> Beloved </i>in which Beloved, a two-year-old, is murdered by her mother who intends to rescue her from slavery. Beloved, residing in a woman’s body, emerges from a kind of Vodou Water of the Abyss “full of venom” to haunt her mother Sethe. Eventually the reclaimed child consumes her mother as Sethe wastes away and Beloved grows fatter and fatter on guilt and love. Finally the community of Black women who previously rejected Sethe because she killed Beloved and tried to murder her other three children, circle the house and exorcise Beloved’s spirit and Sethe is accepted back into the community again. <i>Beloved</i> is a warning of what can happen when we ignore the whispers of the novel’s epigraph: “Sixty Million and more,” slaves Morrison memorializes in her novel. Un-reclaimed spirits sleep uneasily, and so will our history if we fail to recognize the voices of speakers with fluid identifiers, the soul reaching beyond the abject body, and our ancestors calling from home.  There may be no better way to allow those voices to be heard than through the act of writing, where they can speak for themselves.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/academic-dispatches/writing-rites-reclamation-blackness-caribbean-remembering/">Writing Rites of Reclamation: Blackness and Caribbean Remembering</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>No is Yes (poetry)</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/yes-poem/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 11 Jul 2015 01:58:07 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Let us treat Yes as a No…and No as a Yes ~ Nikos Karouzos, ‘Texts/Non-fiction/Prose’ Greece, Your no is also a yes To other things, You spurned usurers For Athens’[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/yes-poem/">No is Yes (poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: right;"><em style="text-align: right;">Let us treat Yes as a No…and No as a Yes</em><br />
<span style="text-align: right;">~ Nikos Karouzos, ‘Texts/Non-fiction/Prose’</span></p>
<p>Greece,<br />
Your no is also a yes<br />
To other things,<br />
You spurned usurers<br />
For Athens’ pride</p>
<p>Greece,<br />
You stood through war<br />
Resisted fascists,<br />
Your poets wrote poems<br />
On cigarette packs</p>
<p>Greece,<br />
Your silences are oracles<br />
Of time’s future,<br />
With your aching hands<br />
You fisted tables</p>
<p>You resisted the enemy<br />
Greece,<br />
You sabotaged<br />
The plans of annexation<br />
Burning bridges</p>
<p>Greece,<br />
You let Marx sit on your<br />
Stoic shoulders,<br />
Your cynics defied kings<br />
Trusted workers</p>
<p>Your history is a miracle<br />
Greece,<br />
You are a library<br />
Of words that escaped fire<br />
Survived Caesar</p>
<p>The world is in your debt<br />
Greece,<br />
They can’t repay<br />
The wonders of your urns<br />
And your verses</p>
<p>Today you brave penury<br />
Greece,<br />
With the grit<br />
Of a working class poet<br />
Who resisted</p>
<p>He left behind omens<br />
On paper<br />
They remain inscribed<br />
In the eyes</p>
<p><em>“But perhaps dawn will reveal a new face”</em><sup><a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a></sup></p>
<p style="text-align: right;"><span style="text-align: right;">Manash Bhattacharjee</span><br />
<span style="text-align: right;">July 10, 2015, Delhi</span></p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/yes-poem/">No is Yes (poetry)</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>From Port-au-Prince to Baltimore, with Love</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/port-au-prince-baltimore-love/</link>
		<comments>http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/port-au-prince-baltimore-love/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 11 May 2015 02:09:58 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>A cartoon joking about the ease with which Haitians gained their freedom from French rule bounced around Facebook this week, as protests continued in Baltimore following the death of Freddie[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/port-au-prince-baltimore-love/">From Port-au-Prince to Baltimore, with Love</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>A <a href="https://d262ilb51hltx0.cloudfront.net/fit/c/753/753/1*5jENcZUn0YpeIeqs7tMMWg.jpeg">cartoon</a> joking about the ease with which Haitians gained their freedom from French rule bounced around Facebook this week, as protests continued in Baltimore following the death of Freddie Grey while in police custody. For those of us who study the Haitian Revolution, it evoked a sad chuckle and a knowing smile. We laughed sadly because we know that the idea that Haitians easily gained their freedom is preposterous, and we smiled knowingly because we recognize how relevant the joke is to today’s protests in Ferguson, New York, and Baltimore. For those of you who think the comparison of Baltimore in 2015 to Port-au-Prince in 1791 is going too far, let me explain the joke.</p>
<p>By the end of the 18th century, the French were proud to own the richest colony in the world, Saint-Domingue, where tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were disembarked off ships every year, most of them with a life expectancy of less than five years. The enslaved revolted in 1791, gained their freedom in 1793, and eventually declared national independence in 1804 after the French sent an expedition to re-establish slavery. Haiti was born.</p>
<p>In 1804, it was shocking that a group of formerly enslaved Africans and their descendants dared to form their own nation founded on the abolition of slavery. By this time, to be enslaved was a social status associated with people of African descent in the Americas, so fighting slavery required fighting the racism intrinsic to the institution. Haiti’s existence challenged the narrative that the West told itself: certain people were meant for enslavement and exploitation; therefore, the system of inequality foundational to the Americas was simply <i>normal</i>, not unjust. The West, faced with the shock of Haiti’s existence, worked hard to keep that narrative alive.</p>
<p>In order to promote that story, Haiti was maligned. Haitians were considered violent, barbaric, and incapable of running a nation. Actions such as Haiti’s <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/aug/16/haiti-france">1825 agreement</a> to pay France billions of dollars in exchange for recognition, which weakened the Haitian economy from the start, were used to prove that Haiti couldn’t stand—<i>not</i> to show that the West in fact needed it to fail. This attitude, this desire to prove true the “doomed to fail” narrative, is alive and well two centuries later and it’s closely related to the story that we tell about protests in Ferguson, New York, and Baltimore.</p>
<p>In 2010, the day after an earthquake in Haiti killed <a href="http://www.cfr.org/haiti/haitis-reconstruction-struggles/p35949">over three hundred thousand people</a>, Pat Robertson announced that Haitians were paying for their <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/01/13/haiti.pat.robertson/">“pact with the devil.”</a> What was this “pact” exactly? Robertson suggested that in order to gain their freedom, Haitians needed the help of an evil force, to which they still owed their independence today.</p>
<p>Let’s break down this absurd accusation—Haitians’ ancestors dared to assert that they were not property; they dared to assert that their lives mattered. What made their freedom and eventual national independence possible? Their determination? Their inner sense of humanity? Their dream of a better life? No, says Robertson, opposing the institution of slavery was the “devil’s” work. And what’s worse, Robertson suggests that hundreds of thousands of people deserved to die two hundred years later because of it. Yet the most detrimental part of this accusation is that it props up the idea that violence belongs to and embodies Haiti and Haitians—not to the institution of slavery that offered misery and death to some and wealth and prosperity to others.</p>
<p>The fact that, two centuries after the first successful slave revolt in the Americas, people continue to locate violence only in the opposition to oppression rather than in the system that oppresses brings us to Ferguson, New York, and Baltimore today. Those who fight back and oppose a system that perpetuates inequity are “thugs” much like Haitian revolutionaries were “brigands.” We overlook the fact that <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2015/04/30/baltimores-poorest-residents-die-20-years-earlier-than-its-richest/">life expectancy</a> varies dramatically by neighborhood in Baltimore, the fact that <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2015/04/30/baltimores-poorest-residents-die-20-years-earlier-than-its-richest/">minor traffic violations</a> can ruin the lives of those who can’t afford to pay the fines associated with tickets, or the fact that <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/03/us/ferguson-justice-department-report-emails/">certain police departments</a> find racism funny. Slavery was abolished in the United States a century and a half ago, over six decades after Haitians claimed their freedom. Economic disparity and racism, both intrinsic to this institution that was foundational to the beginning of the Americas, have not been fully abolished. This, sadly, is why 2015 bears a striking resemblance to 1791.</p>
<p>Now you get the joke. Funny, huh?</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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		<title>Reading and Mis-Reading Frantz Fanon</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/culture/reading-mis-reading-frantz-fanon/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 31 Mar 2015 11:31:36 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>“Fanon was angry. His readers should still be angry too. Angry that the wretched of the earth are still with us. Anger does not in itself produce political programs for[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/reading-mis-reading-frantz-fanon/">Reading and Mis-Reading Frantz Fanon</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p><i>“Fanon was angry. His readers should still be angry too. Angry that the wretched of the earth are still with us. Anger does not in itself produce political programs for change, but it is perhaps the most basic political emotion. Without it, there is no hope,” (Macey 2000, 503).</i></p></blockquote>
<p>The past decade has seen an increase in both popular and scholarly interest in the work of Frantz Fanon. What has brought about this revival in interest in Fanon, who is now discussed at numerous conferences and colloquia and whose work is increasingly featured in both academic and media literature? What are the conditions of our contemporary moment that compel some of us to turn towards Fanon and revisit his now classic texts, from <i>Wretched of the Earth </i>to <i>Black Skin, White Masks</i>? And just as importantly, how are misreadings of Fanon’s work contributing to the dilution of the revolutionary <i>nationalist</i> potential inherent in most of his writing? Two examples of seminal works that have been recently published include Lewis Gordon’s <i>What Fanon Said: A Philosophical Introduction to his Life and Thought</i> and David Macey’s <i>Fanon: A Biography.</i> These works look at Fanon through the events that happened in his life to understand the ways in which he viewed and analyzed social reality. Just as important, although seldom referenced, is work by Neil Lazarus (1999, 2011) and Benita Parry (2004). Lazarus’ chapter on Fanon in his excellent work, <i>The Postcolonial Unconscious </i>and Parry’s analysis of Fanon’s work in her book <i>Postcolonialism: A Materialist Critique</i> constitute important interventions in the way Fanon has been misread by multiple scholars.</p>
<p>Our contemporary moment is characterized by the constant drive towards capitalist accumulation through an increasing process of neoliberalization in the current setting of late capital.<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> This material reality, that is universal but that has a multitude of particularities across the globe, conditions the social categories that produce experience, from class, race, and gender, to (dis)ability and sexuality. However, this has come alongside a tendency within academia to shy away from discussing this very material reality. This is largely due to the turn away from Marxism, as well as to the popularity of both postcolonial and postmodern approaches. The role of the neoliberal university is also important to note, as it pushes for more specialization, more profit, and therefore less critique and less radical thinking. This tendency has meant that although important events such as the uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa have been interpreted through numerous lenses, what is absent is usually analysis employing a lens that engages the global capitalist system and that analyzes social justice with particular attention to neoliberalism and neocolonialism.</p>
<p>This hesitance within academia when it comes to a discussion of neocolonialism (especially through a Marxist lens) is what has driven me towards Fanon as an important scholar within the long tradition of anti-colonial scholarship. It is unfortunate that it has often been scholars who identify as postcolonialists who have rejected the concept of neocolonialism and posited that global relations in our current moment are nuanced and complex, and that we should be wary of repositing a binary of East and West. Here Derrida’s argument that binary oppositions are a violent hierarchy that <i>must first be inverted</i> before they can be decimated is useful, as it shows the need to use binaries <i>solely</i> in order to invert them—without this inversion, they cannot be done away with (Parry 2004, 16). Moreover, as both Benita Parry (2004) and Neil Lazarus (2011) have deftly argued, calls for “complexity” and “nuance” can often serve power by softening the critical edge of critique and should thus be approached with caution. Fanon’s work can certainly be seen as falling within the so-called “trap” of reproducing binaries. He has touched on questions of race, capitalism, nationalism, and neocolonialism, through an analysis that clearly articulates the power relation between the West and the colonial (and neocolonial) world. His background in psychiatry has meant that he often highlighted the <i>psycho-social</i> effects of colonialism and racial domination, even while noting the economic and political processes underlying this domination. Indeed in his work we see the intersecting of these various structures, all through the lens of his involvement in the Algerian war of independence, of which he was a part. His work often relies on psychoanalytical assumptions, although, as Gordon points out, for Fanon the psychoanalytical emphasis is on the racial rather than the sexual.</p>
<p>It seems clear to those of us working within a Marxist framework that many of the problems Fanon addressed in the 1950s and 1960s continue to reproduce themselves in the contemporary moment, albeit at times expressing themselves differently. Indeed the Arab uprisings are a testament to this; would it be possible to argue that neocolonialism, capitalism, and nationalism are not part of the story? (That said, apparently it is indeed possible, judging by the state of Middle East studies today.) Thus it is clear that Fanon remains relevant. The question, then, is: which Fanon? In this article I want to discuss two readings of Fanon’s work that approach him from divergent perspectives and yet still maintain his revolutionary potential. The first is Lewis Gordon&#8217;s forthcoming book on Fanon entitled <i>What Fanon Said: A Philosophical Introduction to his Life and Thought</i>, which highlights the analyses of racial domination present in Fanon’s work. The second is Neil Lazarus’ chapter on Fanon in <i>The Postcolonial Unconscious</i> and his chapter on Fanon in <i>Nationalism and Cultural Practice in the Postcolonial World</i> and Benita Parry’s discussion of Fanon in her book <i>Postcolonialism: A Materialist Critique</i>, which focuses on the question of nationalism. These two sets of texts highlight the way in which Fanon can be read differently according to where emphasis is put, and yet still be acknowledged as an anti-colonialist revolutionary thinker whose work remains relevant today.</p>
<h2>Lewis Gordon and the question of race</h2>
<p>Lewis Gordon begins his book <i>What Fanon Said</i> with a superb introduction that clearly articulates the role of race in how Fanon has been received. He writes,</p>
<blockquote><p>We should step outside of the tendency to reduce the thought of African intellectuals to the thinkers they study. For example, Jean-Paul Sartre was able to comment on black intellectuals such as Aimé Césaire, Fanon, and Léopold Sédar Senghor without becoming ‘Césairian,’ ‘Fanonian,’ or ‘Senghorian’; Simon de Beauvoir could comment on the work of Richard Wright without becoming ‘Wrightian’; Max Weber could comment on the work of W. E. B. Du Bois without becoming ‘Du Boisian.’ Why then is there a different story when black authors comment on their (white) European counterparts? Standard scholarship has explored whether Du Bois is Herderian, Hegelian, Marxian, or Weberian; whether Senghor is Heideggerian; and whether Fanon is every one of the Europeans on whom he has commented &#8211; Adlerian, Bergsonian, Freudian, Hegelian, Husserlian, Lacanian, Marxian, Merleau-Pontian, and Sartrean, to name several (2015, 18).</p></blockquote>
<p>This is related to the tendency to reduce black intellectuals to their biographies; or, in other words, to assume that white intellectuals produce ideas and theory, while black intellectuals relate experiences. The point here is not to simply say Sartre is Fanonian or de Beauvoir Wrightian; the point is to emphasize that the opposite is always the case: that black intellectuals are always read and understood through white intellectuals. Thus from the outset Gordon is setting the stage for the centrality of race in his book. Indeed the first few chapters focus explicitly on the ways in which Fanon discussed race, particularly from a psychological perspective. Fanon’s first brutal experience with racism in France—when a French child told his mother he was afraid when he saw Fanon—plays a central role here, as does Fanon’s analysis of interracial relationships. It is clear that Gordon has a soft spot for Fanon’s work and that he sees its continuing relevance today: there are multiple points throughout the book where he points out how Fanon’s analysis of the Martinique or Algeria of the early twentieth century continues to be relevant today.</p>
<p>Gordon also produces a very nuanced analysis of Fanon’s gender politics, which have been subject to much heated debate.<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> Fanon has been attacked by many white feminists (and non-white feminists working within the liberal tradition) for his comments on Mayotte Capécia’s <i>Je Suis Martiniquaise</i>. These feminists saw Fanon’s analysis of Capécia’s inferiority complex as sexist and dismissed his work in its entirety based on that reading. I would posit that Fanon’s reading of this particular work is not sexist but rather shows the reality of how race and gender intersect to produce complicated forms of desire. Here Capécia’s desire for white men—and white men alone—is seen as a desire to <i>be white</i>, to <i>attain whiteness</i>. It is clear for Fanon that this form of desire is therefore to be criticized. Fanon’s reading is in effect one that analyses gender through a critical race perspective and thus it is no surprise white feminists were uncomfortable with it. While Gordon dismisses claims that Fanon’s reading of Capécia was sexist, he does, however, critique Fanon for his “epistemic sexism.” Here he argues that Fanon’s work is clearly indebted to Simone de Beauvoir, and that despite this he did not cite her or mention her influence in any form. Gordon writes, “I cannot excuse Fanon’s failure to articulate his indebtedness to de Beauvoir…it is clear de Beauvoir not only offered much intellectual sustenance to Fanon’s thought but also that he was well aware of at least her two major contributions at the time of writing <i>Black Skin White Masks.</i> Her presence at the level of ideas but exclusion at that of citation is a form of epistemic sexism,” (Ibid, 58). Thus Gordon condemns readings of Fanon that posit his sexism and dismiss him based on that and yet simultaneously notes that there are traces of sexism in Fanon’s work. In addition, it is useful to note the problematic way in which Fanon at times discussed Algerian women, repositing a Western separation between the public and private sphere and over-emphasizing the role of the veil.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, it is clear, as Gordon demonstrates, that Fanon’s <i>theoretical</i> analysis of the position of Algerian women within the battle for independence is correct. Gordon writes: “Whether Fanon’s portrayal of the facts are accurate does not affect the main point of his analysis: how could liberating Algerian women be taken seriously when the approach to doing so is to impose a structure that makes the women (1) subordinate to all French and other European peoples and (2) only of value to the extent to which their plight could be used to maintain subordination of Algerian men and women,” (Ibid, 150). Fanon’s analysis of the relationship between the French settler-colonizers and Algerian women is a heavily psychoanalytic one, where he posits that white French settlers dreamed of ripping the veils off Algerian women and penetrating them—in other words, deflowering the country (Ibid). What is notable here is the way in which Algerian women are part and parcel of the Algerian revolution, as Fanon himself constantly pointed out. Gordon writes that this shows how these women’s fight for the freedom <i>as women</i> is an outgrowth of struggles against colonization and slavery, a point that has been made by both Assia Djebar in the Algerian context and Angela Davis in the American one (Ibid, 155). This is not to say that women only fought for independence and not for gender justice or an end to patriarchy, but rather to demonstrate the ways in which these various struggles are interconnected.</p>
<p>The unwillingness on the part of many feminists to engage with Fanon should be seen as a missed opportunity to enrich the field of postcolonial feminism. Fanon’s analysis of capitalism, class relations, neocolonialism and nationalism can greatly enhance the work of feminists working in contexts that were formerly colonized. In an excellent article, Ashley Bohrer points out that many <i>anti-imperialist Marxist </i>feminists in particular have used Fanon to discuss colonialism and neocolonialism, noting in particular Silvia Federici and Mariarosa Dalla Costa. By looking at the ways in which Fanon influenced these two feminists—who are indeed central to Marxist feminism—Bohrer shows “how his thought is foundational for a contemporary Marxist analysis of capitalist patriarchy,” (2015, 379). Fanon argues that colonialism should, above all, be analyzed from the perspective of economics: “The colonized world is one structured by economic violence, and in particular, the violent and coercive appropriation of the labour of the oppressed,” (Ibid, 380). This economic exploitation is internalized by the colonized through complex webs of socialization. Thus cultural imperialism is part and parcel of economic imperialism.</p>
<p>While Fanon has rarely been labeled a Marxist, it is clear from the above passage that his work contains important analyses of colonial capitalism. I argue that Fanon’s call to “stretch Marxism” should be seen as a useful for feminists working in the Global South because it calls for both a centering of Marxism while at the same time acknowledging the ways in which capitalism conditions life in the colonies (as opposed to the métropoles). In other words, I believe “stretching Marxism” here can be seen as a means of dislodging Eurocentric Marxist accounts that do not consider colonialism as central to capitalist accumulation and that do not account for how capitalism in the postcolony (Mbembé 2001) is different. Here Bohrer’s point that Fanon’s analysis had a lasting effect on Italian Marxist feminism shows the importance of his materialist critiques of capitalism. Silvia Federici, for example, arguably one of the most important feminists today, cites Fanon as one of her major influences alongside Samir Amin and Andre Gunder Frank. Marxist feminists have long critiqued Marx’s exclusion of the social reproduction carried out by women in the home; feminists such as Federici and Dalla Costa also noted the exclusion of the <i>distinctive</i> form of labour carried out in the colonies (a point that had previously been made by Rosa Luxemburg). Alongside critiques by Marxists from the Global South that center colonialism within capitalist accumulation, it is clear that Marxism can and should be stretched. This is precisely why I believe Fanon remains an important inspiration for feminists working in the Global South: his work on capitalism and colonialism, both at the level of materiality and ideas, is now more crucial than ever in light of the continued dominance of liberal feminism globally.</p>
<h2>Lazarus, Parry, and the “Postcolonial” Fanon</h2>
<p>So how has Fanon been read by postcolonial theorists, whose work is focused on the Global South? Here the readings have been less than promising. Neil Lazarus begins his chapter in <i>The Postcolonial Unconscious</i> by pointing out that Fanon is an exception among anti-colonial writers writing during the era of decolonization because of the extent to which he has been engaged with by postcolonial scholars. This engagement, however, has often meant a specific kind of reading of his work that has turned it into a “post”-theoretical discourse that addresses subject formation (2011, 122). How to account for this shift in the Fanon that propagated Third World nationalist anti-colonialism to the Fanon in the work of Homi Bhahba<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> and others who focused on the subject?<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a> Lazarus writes, “The containment of the historic challenge from the ‘Third World’ that had been expressed in the struggle for decolonization in the post-1945 years must be seen in the light of the global reassertion and consolidation of what (Samir) Amin calls ‘the logic of unilateral capital’,” (Ibid, 124). The triumph of neoliberalism and reassertion of a neo-imperialist world order—with the US at its head—meant that a new reading of Fanon was needed: a ‘postcolonial’ Fanon; “…not only post-colonial, but also post-nationalist, post-liberationist, post-Marxist, and post-modern,” (Ibid). In other words, the opposite of the revolutionary Fanon that preceded this shift.</p>
<p>A second major difference between the first Fanon and the second is the focus on nationalism in the former and its conspicuous absence in the latter. Fanon was greatly influenced by the Algerian war for liberation. This meant that nationalist anti-colonialism, violence, class, ideology, and the ‘Third World’ in general were major themes in most of his work. This goes against the general tendency, however, to see nationalism as a deeply destructive force. As Benita Parry has noted, there is a tendency to disparage nationalist discourses of resistance within postcolonial studies (2012, 35). More than simply disparaging nationalism, Parry rightly points out that the field of postcolonialism often analyzes colonialism as a cultural event, mediated through texts, rather than focusing on the concrete, material, socio-economic and state-based processes that also made up colonialism. Indeed, reading Fanon, it is difficult to understand how he is been appropriated by a field so heavily influenced by postmodernism (postcolonialism) given his emphasis on precisely the material, the socio-economic, and the national.</p>
<p>Regarding nationalism, Lazarus writes: “Some contemporary theorists of ‘postcoloniality’ have attempted to build upon Fanon’s denunciation of bourgeois nationalism. Yet Fanon’s actual standpoint poses insuperable problems for them. One fundamental difficulty derives from the fact that far from representing an abstract repudiation of nationalism as such, Fanon’s critique of bourgeois nationalist ideology is itself delivered from an <i>alternative nationalist standpoint</i>,” (1999, 78). In other words, although many within postcolonial studies view nationalism as a thoroughly modern and negative force, Fanon instead saw it as a means to liberation <i>while simultaneously warning us of the pitfalls of bourgeois nationalism.</i> The national project could also become a <i>socialist</i> one, rather than a capitalist one. This emphasis on capitalism and imperialism further distinguishes Fanon from those within postcolonial studies who see Marxism as being of little use to contemporary analysis. What I find especially important here is that Fanon’s anti-colonialist nationalism allowed for a bridge to an internationalism that was anti-imperialist and anti-capitalist in nature. This bridge is precisely what is missing in much of the work being done today.</p>
<p>I conclude with a quote from Lazarus about the importance of anti-colonialism: “It is important to try and keep alive the memory of the ‘revolutionary heroism’ that was everywhere in evidence in the struggle for national liberation. Even more important is to insist that the concrete achievements of this struggle are still intact and continue to provide a vital resource for present-day social and cultural practice. It is not only that the lives of hundreds of millions of people throughout the world were changed decisively by the experience of anti-colonial struggle. It is also that <i>these changes are irreversible</i>. No matter how great have been the defeats that have had to be endured <i>since</i> decolonization, the perduring solidaristic significance of the anti-colonial struggle has not been erased,” (1999, 120-121). This quote, as well as Lazarus’ and Parry’s readings of Fanon, show that for them his greatest contribution has been to the anti-colonial struggles of the 1950s and 1960s, in particular the Algerian war of independence. This is the frame they read him through, and to do this they have engaged in much-needed critiques of postcolonial attempts to sanitize Fanon and render him part of a postmodern canon that is often severely lacking in material analysis. For Lewis Gordon, Fanon’s greatest contribution appears to be his work on race and the ways in which the world is structured by anti-Black racism. Moreover, where Gordon emphasizes the centrality of Fanon for scholars and activists fighting against anti-Black racism, David Macey instead emphasizes that Fanon’s allegiance, first and foremost, was to the Algerian war of independence. Thus we see here three slightly different framings of Fanon: one where Fanon is an anti-colonial, anti-capitalist revolutionary, one where Fanon is a global anti-Black racism scholar; and one where Fanon is above all an Algerian revolutionary. This is not to say that all of these writers do not acknowledge the many dimensions of Fanon’s work. Parry and Lazarus write about Fanon’s views on race and his deep commitment to the Algerian struggle; and Gordon affirms the centrality of Algeria for Fanon as well as his clear materialist critiques of the global system. The point is simply that each writer places the emphasis somewhere else; each reads Fanon through a different lens.</p>
<p>Some may argue that this ability to read Fanon in such diverse ways is a benefit; but this would fall into the liberal trap of seeing pluralism as constructive. Indeed as I have shown, Lazarus’ and Parry’s demonstration of how postcolonialists such as Bhabha have mis-read Fanon shows the dangers of accepting all readings as equally valid. Looking back at Fanon’s work, it is clear that there are central themes that cannot be ignored: his anti-racism, his nationalism, his class analysis, and, above all, his incessant call to others to fight against oppression.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/culture/reading-mis-reading-frantz-fanon/">Reading and Mis-Reading Frantz Fanon</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>“Rhodes Must Fall” – Decolonisation Symbolism – What is happening at UCT, South Africa?</title>
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		<pubDate>Sun, 29 Mar 2015 12:53:03 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Photo credit: UCT Rhodes Must Fall In this moment it appears increasingly clear that the growing levels of inequality and the tensions in national politics in the South African context[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/rhodes-must-fall-decolonisation-symbolism-happening-uct-south-africa/">“Rhodes Must Fall” – Decolonisation Symbolism – What is happening at UCT, South Africa?</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Photo credit: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/RhodesMustFall" target="_blank">UCT Rhodes Must Fall</a></span></p>
<p>In this moment it appears increasingly clear that the growing levels of inequality and the tensions in national politics in the South African context are igniting a new era of post-Apartheid voices.  These are the rising voices of a youth who are increasingly distrustful of “rainbow nation” doctrines and talk of neo-liberal racial democracy. In what has quickly become a historic wave of student-driven protests at the University of Cape Town, an unprecedented level of widespread debate, conversation, and tactical demonstrations have taken hold of the atmosphere and imagination of countless participants across the country and now across the globe.</p>
<p>The protests focussed around the calls for the removal of a statue of the imperialist megalomaniac and renowned “philanthropist”, one Cecil John Rhodes. Rhodes was an avid businessman whose accumulated wealth stemmed largely from mining in Southern Africa, and he was also the colonial driver instigating the creation of the Rhodesian territory. The protest actions, since their inception, have demanded the removal of the statue along with firm commitments to address worker rights, curriculum and several other issues that have been laid out in full in a petition presented by students, workers, and staff.</p>
<p>The real catalyst for the international attention was born from a controversial demonstration, in the second week of March 2015, beneath the figure of Cecil John Rhodes perched on his throne, gazing dreamily at the still vastly unequal city from his timeless ivory tower, the University of Cape Town. The demonstration, calling for the statue’s removal, reached its climax when one protester, Chumani Maxwele, threw a bucket of faecal matter over the statue.</p>
<p>This spurred action and attracted a great deal of attention in both online and offline spaces.  The responses varied from damning condemnations to overwhelming support and mass mobilisation resulting in marches, petitions, open letters and hundreds of opinion pieces in national popular media outlets in particular.</p>
<p>On Friday the 20<sup>th</sup> of March, a procession under the banner of the slogan “Rhodes Must Fall” was led from the main campus down to the University administration building, Bremner, were the Vice Chancellor’s office is located. Midway through the address the student driven contingent occupied the administration building and took up residence in a historic room named the Archie Mafeje room. In 1968 this room was occupied by hundreds of students at the university protesting an intervention from the then South African government that <a href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/students-support-appointment-archie-mafeje">sought to rescind Mafeje’s appointment to the African Studies department, as a senior lecturer</a>. Archie Mafeje, hailing from Ncobo in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, had studied and taught at the University of Cape Town while engaging in political activism and providing insight into fighting for the plight of Africa and its people. He went on to teach and work at the University of Dar Es Salaam before moving to work in The Hague, before finally returning to South Africa to continue his work developing social science research in the South African context.</p>
<p>Bremner building was quickly renamed by the student driven mass movement to “Azania House” invoking the spirit and legacies of the Black consciousness movements in South Africa in the 1970s. Azania house has become the center of operations for the social movement who have declared their unwillingness to move until the demands, particularly the removal of the statue, are met.</p>
<p>On the evening of Tuesday the 24<sup>th</sup> of March in an <a href="https://briankamanzi.wordpress.com/2015/03/25/uct-black-academics-when-they-arrived/">address delivered by a cohort of black academics</a> from the University of Cape Town, testimonials were given describing the difficulties around being a black staff member within the institution, and practical suggestions and dreams for “transformed” university spaces were shared in the lively, packed room, intermittently infused with protest songs and dances that served to raise spirits and refocus strength in the wake of the heaviness of the topic at hand.</p>
<p>Consistently over the days that followed, the collective occupying Azania House orchestrated protests and performance art demonstrations across the campus, interrogating the legacy of colonialism and how it is memorialised on campus. In a particularly powerful piece popularly titled Saartjie Baartman, a collective of artists left from Azania House and walked through the campus in chains, black paint and diapers, moving towards a sculpture on Baartman located in the University library.</p>
<div id="attachment_1824" style="width: 310px" class="wp-caption alignright"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Saartjie-Baartman.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1824" alt="SaartjieBaartman // Man walking with Chains. Photo credit: UCT Rhodes Must Fall" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Saartjie-Baartman-300x300.jpg" width="300" height="300" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">SaartjieBaartman // Man walking with Chains. Photo credit: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/RhodesMustFall" target="_blank">UCT Rhodes Must Fall</a></p></div>
<p>As the media attention, both national and international, continued to lock its gaze on the unrelenting “Rhodes Must Fall” campaign, the broader debates in and around the movement continued to drive for changes beyond the physical fall of the statue. Azania House, in the evenings that followed March 24<sup>th</sup>, has been home to guest lecturers presenting on various issues and the Archie Mafeje room in particular continues to be a space generating intellectual debate, art in various forms, and conversations regarding alternative educational pedagogies in ways that have been rarely seen on the University campus.</p>
<p>These lectures and dialogues have provoked a conversation regarding changes in the curriculum of key interest areas within the University that have consistently marginalised Afro-centric views, thoughts and teachings. This was particularly discussed in the Politics, Psychology, English literature, Philosophy and History departments, respectively.  Much debate surrounded revisiting the disagreements within the university that led to the departure of Professor Mahmood Mamdani in 1999, former AC Jordan chair of African Studies at the University of Cape Town and a world-renowned post colonial scholar. Dialogue on the conditions surrounding Mamdani’s departure, approached in his paper “Teaching African in Post-Apartheid South Africa”, has provided a useful, tangible foundation from which this movement can begin to address specific curriculum deficiencies, particularly emphasising on how issues centered around the African continent are dealt with.</p>
<p>Another noteworthy trend stemming from the debates and conversations facilitated at the University has been the leadership shown by black women, and in many cases, black queer women. Several declarations and efforts have been made to ensure that the spaces and actions remain intersectional and develop through that lens going forward, which at present is no easy feat as issues continuously battle for priority.</p>
<p>International solidarity from other Universities outside of South Africa continues to flurry in, notably kicked off with protest action at from a radical collective located in Oxford University calling for the fall of Rhodes and for the “Decolonisation” of education.  The Black Student Union of the University of Berkley, California, issued a statement in solidarity and several other student groups in Universities in the region continue offer solidarity as the movement continues to pick up steam.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<div id="attachment_1829" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><img class="size-full wp-image-1829" alt="Oxford Student Protest. Photo credit: Ntokozo Qwabe" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Oxford-Student-Protest1.jpg" width="622" height="415" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Oxford Student Protest. Photo credit: Ntokozo Qwabe<i> </i></p></div>
<div id="attachment_1828" style="width: 632px" class="wp-caption alignnone"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/De-Nieuwe-Universiteit-solidarity1.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1828" alt="De NieuweUniversiteit - vooreendemocratischeuniversiteit Solidarity to the students of UCT. Photo credit: De NieuweUniversiteit - vooreendemocratischeuniversiteit" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/De-Nieuwe-Universiteit-solidarity1.jpg" width="622" height="302" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">De NieuweUniversiteit &#8211; vooreendemocratischeuniversiteit<br />Solidarity to the students of UCT. Photo credit: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/pages/De-Nieuwe-Universiteit-voor-een-democratische-universiteit/364554890370545" target="_blank">De NieuweUniversiteit &#8211; vooreendemocratischeuniversiteit</a></p></div>
<p>Within South Africa, universities across the country have responded to the chants echoing from the University of Cape Town. Protest action in Rhodes University, located in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, has reinvigorated conversations around the existing institutional culture in these universities and drawn connections to the symbolic, continued, existence of names, statues and sculptures left over from the colonial and Apartheid eras of South Africa. Debate has ensued about how these artifacts and names reflect the continued exclusion of different epistemologies of thought, different races, classes and gender based oppressions.</p>
<p>Notably, in Durban, at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, a statue of King George V has been defaced with paint as the ripples of anti-colonial rage continued to make waves on the East coast of South Africa. This campus, as with many university spaces in South Africa, is no stranger to protest, and this recent wave of student action locates itself within a broader conversation across the nation that seeks to apply pressure on the political imagination of the present day.</p>
<div id="attachment_1826" style="width: 394px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/UKZN-King-George-V.jpg"><img class=" wp-image-1826 " alt="King George V vandalised, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal. Photo credit: Ntokozo Qwabe" src="http://postcolonialist.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/UKZN-King-George-V.jpg" width="384" height="682" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">King George V vandalised, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal. Photo credit: Ntokozo Qwabe</p></div>
<p>Protest action, demonstrations and various other forms of activism continue to take place to varying degrees at many of the other universities across the country. Within the context of South African universities, an unbroken line of organized protest from the days of Apartheid has continued to characterise this landscape as groups of students and workers alike fight for improved worker rights, more inclusive University spaces, and progressive admissions policies tailored to meet the appetite for redress.  Concerns addressed include the limited financial backing and the lack of academic support measures for students, particularly students previously disadvantaged by the effects of the Apartheid system, and identification in part by using race as a proxy for disadvantage. These issues of debate, among many, remain firmly present in the mind, hearts and motivations driving many who now march under the banner of “Rhodes Must Fall.”</p>
<p>The removal of the statue, while largely symbolic, has been an appropriate rallying cry by which to tangibly address the practical implications of so called “transformation”, redress and the re-imagination of what the role and function of an African University should be.  The success of the removal of the statue will illustrate an important step in the ability for social movements under this banner to physically effect change in their environment. This process of physical change in the university space will begin to provide concrete, tactile shape to the intangible changes and transformations in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Indeed, several civil society organisations, notably the Marikana Support Group, and Equal Education have issued statements of support with the “Rhodes Must Fall” campaign, citing the need for critical introspection and declaring their rejection of the oppression and exfoliation that the legacy of Rhodes in many ways embodies.</p>
<p>In the broader political climate of South Africa, leading up to the elections in early 2014 the country witnessed the rise of a new player in the political landscape, the Economic Freedom Fighters. The party locates itself as a radical, militant economic emancipatory movement whose political discourse lies squarely on the “left”.  Their introduction has come at a time when the legacy of the “rainbow nation” project has begun to wane as the country grows increasingly vocal in its desire to improve basic services, infrastructure, and social mobility and reduce corruption and exploitation. The party, while controversial in its tactics and engagements, has injected energy into public discourse and popularised a language against inequality that has undoubtedly affected how many young South Africans are framing the understanding of our concerning levels of inequality.</p>
<p>The series of protests, demonstrations and conversations that have been re-invoked with vigour allowing a revitalization of post-colonial thought and discourse into the popular public domain across South Africa, and more broadly across many countries at this moment, illustrate the fading dreams of miraculous peaceful transitions from colonies to independent states. Only time will tell whether this wave will give way to fatigue or grow and change into broader movements, and whether institutions and organisations will take these conversation to different levels of engagement. If we can be certain of one thing it is this: <i>a change is going to come.</i></p>
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		<title>« Je suis Charlie » ? Laïcité, islam et guerre de l’erreur</title>
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		<pubDate>Mon, 23 Mar 2015 12:31:20 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Quelle réponse, s’inscrivant dans une perspective postcoloniale, apporter aux attentats terroristes qui ont eu lieu à l’encontre du journal satirique français Charlie Hebdo, et ont conduit au massacre brutal de[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/je-suis-charlie-laicite-islam-et-guerre-de-lerreur/">« Je suis Charlie » ? Laïcité, islam et guerre de l’erreur</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
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<p>Quelle réponse, s’inscrivant dans une perspective <i>postcoloniale</i>, apporter aux attentats terroristes qui ont eu lieu à l’encontre du journal satirique français <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>, et ont conduit au massacre brutal de l’ensemble ou presque de son comité de rédaction? Le 7 janvier 2015, deux hommes armés ont pénétré dans les bureaux de Charlie Hebdo, situés dans le 11<sup>ème</sup> arrondissement de Paris, tuant des dessinateurs de premier plan tels que Charb, Cabu, Honoré, Tignous et Wolinski. Les deux tireurs auraient alors crié « Allahu Akbar » (<i>Dieu est grand</i> en arabe) et aussi « On a vengé le Prophète », faisant référence à une série de caricatures du Prophète Mahomet. On a identifié plus tard les tireurs comme étant les frères Kouachi, deux citoyens français musulmans d’origine algérienne s’étant formé au maniement des armes au Yémen, et appartenant à l’organisation terroriste islamiste Al-Qaïda dans la Péninsule Arabique (AQPA). Des preuves indiquent également que des liens existent entre les frères Kouachi et Amedy Coulibaly qui, deux jours après les attentats, tuait quatre otages dans un supermarché casher juif situé Porte-de-Vincennes dans le 12<sup>ème</sup> arrondissement. Dans une courte vidéo posthume, Coulibaly affirme avoir appartenu à un autre groupe armé, L’État Islamique en Irak et au Levant (EIIL).</p>
<p>En tout, la tuerie de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> a fait douze morts, y compris trois officiers de police. Une chasse à l’homme a suivi, à l’issue de laquelle les trois terroristes ont été abattus dans une embuscade policière se déroulant simultanément à deux endroits différents de Paris. La couverture sensationnaliste qu’a fait les médias de l’événement a contribué à l’intensification du choc post-traumatique que de nombreux Français ont éprouvé au lendemain des attentats. Le 11 janvier, environ deux millions de personnes, y compris 40 dirigeants à travers le monde, ont défilé dans les rues de Paris afin de montrer leur solidarité à l’égard des dessinateurs morts et de soutenir la liberté d’expression, ainsi que la liberté de la presse. Les gens n’ont pas manqué de pointer du doigt l’ironie causée par la présence de chefs d’état en provenance de pays tels que l’Egypte, la Turquie ou Israël, dont le bilan en matière de libertés est plus que discutable. Le slogan « Je suis Charlie » (<i>I am Charlie</i>) est devenu le cri de ralliement d’une foule autrement silencieuse dans son ensemble, encore en deuil et encore frappée par la signification des attentats. Les gens ont eu le sentiment qu’une partie de l’esprit irrévérencieux français s’était éteint dans les attentats. La question n’est pas de savoir si l’on aime ou non <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>, mais de comprendre que le journal était le symbole d’une époque vraisemblablement révolue.</p>
<p><i>Charlie Hebdo</i> est d’abord apparu en 1970 dans le sillon de Mai 68, et comme successeur du magazine <i>Hara-Kiri</i>, interdit pour s’être moqué de la mort de l’ancien Président Charles de Gaulle. La posture gauchisante, anti-cléricale et anti-militariste du journal a amené ses dessinateurs à tourner en dérision toutes formes d’autorité, laïque ou non, comme le patriarcat. Son contenu sexuellement explicite, son langage cru et sa caricature du « beauf » (équivalent français du « redneck » américain) a servi à briser de nombreux tabous au sein d’un pays encore majoritairement rural, superstitieux et bigot. L’impertinence de C<i>harlie Hebdo</i> épousait à la perfection un des slogans révolutionnaires de Mai 68 : « Il est interdit d’interdire ». Après avoir cessé la publication du journal dans les années 80, <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> a repris son édition hebdomadaire. Depuis, le journal a comparu dans plus de 50 procès judiciaires, la plupart découlant de plaintes de la part de l’extrême droite, des grands médias, et de l’Église Catholique. Dans la plupart des cas, il a remporté ces procès. Depuis 2006 et la controverse au sujet des caricatures du Prophète Mahomet, Charlie Hebdo a systématiquement nié être un journal raciste et islamophobe. Le licenciement de l’éminent dessinateur Siné en 2008, suite à des accusations d’antisémitisme, l’incendie criminel contre les bureaux du journal en 2011, et les attentats terroristes en ce début d’année 2015, laissent cependant penser que si <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> est demeuré fidèle à son credo libertaire, la société française, quant à elle, a changé – et pas forcément dans le bon sens.</p>
<p>Étant Français, j’éprouve des sentiments très partagés s’agissant de défendre <i>Charli</i>e. En France, le blasphème n’est pas un délit et il existe une longue tradition de satire politique et religieuse faisant la fierté du pays, et remontant à la Révolution française. Ce n’est pas pour nier le contexte spécifiquement postcolonial dans lequel s’est inscrit la controverse autour de <i>Charlie</i>, ce qui m’a poussé à coucher sur papier mes pensées afin de provoquer davantage de débat au sein de la gauche. L’histoire commence dans les années 50 dans le cadre des luttes de libération anticoloniales, en particulier en Algérie. L’actuelle V<sup>e</sup> République française est née du fait de la guerre d’indépendance algérienne, entraînant l’effondrement de la IV<sup>e</sup> République. Ces luttes furent en général laïques, inspirées du nationalisme panarabe, du tiers-mondisme ou du communisme. Ces idéologies laïques n’ayant pas réussi à se constituer en alternatives viables au capitalisme, l’idéologie religieuse – « l’opium du peuple », pour utiliser une formule marxiste consacrée – est venue occuper un vide politique dans une époque que certains ont décrite comme étant « postrévolutionnaire » (Dirlik 1997). <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/13/charlie-hebdo-solution-muslims-french-arab-descent-newspaper-fight-racism">Ainsi qu’a ajouté un journaliste français du journal britannique <i>The</i> <i>Guardian</i> après les attentats</a>, « le chaos qui a émergé pendant et après les guerres d’indépendance vis-à-vis de l’Occident (dont la responsabilité est clairement engagée) a fourni une excellente opportunité aux fanatiques de revenir au premier plan, dont la profonde rancœur face à l’évolution de leur pays était venue alimenter un désir de vengeance. »</p>
<p>Les Arabo-Musulmans qui ont émigré en France à partir des années 60 jusqu’à nos jours sont venus pour différentes raisons : pour fuir le fondamentalisme religieux (en Algérie : la décennie noire des années 90 et de la guerre civile), fuir la pauvreté, ou parce que ces derniers voyaient en France le pays de la <i>liberté, égalité, fraternité</i>. C’est je crois ici, toutefois, qu’une autre histoire commence. Les Arabo-Musulmans de deuxième et troisième générations sont nés en France et pourtant ont grandi dans un contexte de chômage de masse, de discrimination raciale et de montée du communautarisme ethnico-religieux. Les émeutes de 2005 furent un symptôme de la ghettoïsation rapide des <i>banlieues</i>, désormais largement racialisées (concomitant avec la montée de l’extrême droite), et qu’un film comme <i>La Haine</i> de Mathieu Kassovitz avait prédit dix ans auparavant. De bien des façons, les émeutes ont marqué un tournant décisif : considérées en France comme le plus grand soulèvement depuis Mai 68, celles-ci ont aussi conduit le gouvernement à réinstaurer la loi martiale. De manière significative, la dernière fois que c’est arrivé était pendant la guerre d’Algérie. Composé d’intellectuels publics, d’universitaires et de militants locaux issus d’origines diverses, la naissance en 2006 du parti politique décolonial <a href="http://indigenes-republique.fr/"><i>Les Indigènes de la République</i></a> est venu occuper un espace plus que nécessaire à gauche. Leur diagnostic était que la gauche française, à laquelle <i>Charlie</i> appartient, s’est rendue complice de la perpétration d’une situation s’apparentant à l’apartheid au sein d’une France néocoloniale.</p>
<p>C’est une réalité à laquelle des segments de la gauche, en particulier dans le monde anglo-saxon, n’ont pas hésité à se confronter en condamnant de façon quasi unilatérale le caractère islamophobe de la ligne éditoriale de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>. <a href="http://socialistworker.org/2015/01/13/no-tolerance-for-islamophobia">Certains sont allés jusqu’à suggérer que n’importe quelle organisation de gauche digne de ce nom devrait faire de son mieux pour faire interdire Charlie Hebdo</a> (par des moyens légaux, faut-il préciser!)<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>. Ce faisant, ces organisations se sont jointes au concert général de dénonciation et de colère émanant de Musulmans qui, à travers la planète, ont protesté contre la publication par <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> d’une nouvelle caricature du Prophète figurant sur la couverture de leur premier numéro suite aux attentats. Le journal indépendant a choisi de faire un tirage exceptionnel à 7 millions d’exemplaires au lieu des 60 000 habituels ; le numéro a été distribué dans plus de 20 pays, et traduit en espagnol, en italien, en anglais, en turc et en arabe. Il est significatif, cependant, que de nombreux canaux médiatiques anglo-saxons aient choisi de censurer le numéro afin de ne pas heurter la communauté musulmane. Beaucoup de critiques de <i>Charlie</i>, venant de la gauche, ont ainsi soulevé les préoccupations suivantes, que je n’essayerai pas de réfuter, connaissant bien le journal satirique : à savoir que <i>Charlie </i>a manifestement ignoré le contexte d’une islamophobie rampante en Occident; qu’il a appliqué une politique de « deux poids, deux mesures », en particulier depuis l’arrivée du directeur de la rédaction Philippe Val, quand il s’agissait de caricaturer les Juifs; et que de se moquer du christianisme, religion dominante en France, n’est pas la même chose que de se moquer d’une minorité religieuse opprimée telle que les Musulmans.</p>
<p>Je souhaiterais à mon tour soulever certaines préoccupations, dans la mesure où, que nous aimions ou non <i>Charlie</i>, ce dernier faisait et fait encore partie intégrante d’un certain esprit de gauche – libertaire, anarchiste, et anti-clérical. Devrions-nous nous précipiter pour « traiter » (ou <i>interpeller</i>, selon la terminologie de Louis Althusser) <i>Charlie</i> d’islamophobe, au risque d’étouffer notre critique de l’Islam politique et de la façon dont celui-ci a échoué au cours des quatre dernières décennies à remplir ses promesses de prospérité, d’égalité et de liberté ? Nous avons vu, en France et ailleurs, la manière dont l’accusation d’antisémitisme a servi à entraver toute critique du régime d’apartheid d’Israël vis-à-vis des Palestiniens. Ne devrions-nous pas aussi réfléchir au fait que des djihadistes aient choisi de prendre pour cible un journal gauchisant plutôt que, disons, le siège du Front National et de l’extrême droite de Marine Le Pen ? Cette simple réalité devrait nous alerter au climat politique profondément réactionnaire qui est le nôtre. La montée du fondamentalisme religieux, en outre, ne concerne pas seulement le Moyen-Orient et l’Islam, mais aussi l’Inde hinduvta et le sionisme juif, ou, plus près de l’Europe, un pays rongé par la crise tel que la Grèce, où l’Eglise Orthodoxe – avec la complicité du parti néo-nazi Aube Dorée –, a dans certains endroits remplacé l’État suite à l’effondrement du système social. Enfin, et surtout, ne devrions-nous pas réfléchir à la politique « représentationnelle » d’un journal satirique comme <i>Charlie</i>, au lieu de condamner ce dernier, et par là-même écarter des questions épineuses ? En effet, l’envie de conserver l’exclusivité de la (non-)représentation qui est faite de la figure hautement symbolique de Mahomet, sujet au demeurant contentieux même au sein de l’Islam, m’apparaît comme un geste auto-essentialisant renvoyant, par effet de miroir, à l’imaginaire orientaliste de l’Occident. Dès lors, on piège davantage l’Islam dans une image faussée d’elle-même, à savoir religieuse, dogmatique, ou arriérée.</p>
<p>Pour les Musulmans français, dont la condition est par certains aspects semblable à celle des Noirs américains aux États-Unis de par leur marginalisation de longue date, <a href="http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2015/01/16/le-musulman-modere-une-version-actualisee-du-bon-negre_4557616_3212.html">il n’existe guère d’autre choix que de se radicaliser ou de rester des « Musulmans modérés »  – l’équivalent français du « bon nègre »</a>. Pourtant, le cas des frères Kouachi, qui parlaient à peine arabe et n’avaient rejoint le djihad qu’après de longues années de radicalisation, fait d’eux une parodie du « terroriste essentialiste » (Said 1988, 49) dépeint par les médias. Comme l’a fait remarquer dans le passé l’intellectuel Edward Said, « la chose la plus frappante concernant le “terrorisme” […] est son isolement de toute explication ou circonstances atténuantes, et aussi son isolement des représentations de la plupart des autres dysfonctions, symptômes et maladies du monde contemporain » (47). Souvent occulté des médias, en toile de fond apparaît l’enfance des frères Kouachi, qui ont grandi dans un ghetto parisien, avec une mère suicidaire et un père absent, ou encore le confinement d’Amedy Coulibaly dans les conditions sordides du système carcéral français. Cela montre qu’on ne peut pas évacuer le terrorisme en invoquant un acte irrationnel de<i> barbarie </i>(c’est-à-dire, étymologiquement, ce qui est étranger ou « Autre »). Cela ne signifie pas non plus que ces derniers ne furent que de simples « victimes du système ». Ils se posent plutôt en sujets rationnels portant des revendications spécifiques dont il faut tenir compte : de manière explicite, comme l’ont déclaré eux-mêmes les terroristes, l’exigence que la France cesse sa politique militaire interventionniste tuant des Musulmans à l’étranger ; et, implicitement, qu’elle se mette à « écouter » les nombreuses frustrations des banlieues françaises. Ainsi que l’a affirmé Gayatri Spivak, « la résistance prenant la forme d’attentats-suicides est un message inscrit à même le corps lorsque qu’aucun autre moyen ne réussit » (2012, 385).</p>
<p>Tout en gardant ce contexte à l’esprit, l’une des marques de fabrique du postcolonial (de caractère diasporique, discursif et privilégié tout spécialement) est sa célébration de la moquerie, de l’ironie et de la dérision, perçues comme étant subversives et transgressives. Comme l’a écrit la critique littéraire Sneja Gunew,</p>
<blockquote>[Les minorités] n’ont pas le droit à l’ironie ou à d’autres hétérogénéités de langage et se limitent simplement aux contraintes linéaires ou uni-dimensionnelles, à la nécessité de « parler clairement » ou de risquer de souffrir du fardeau de se voir traduit, relayé par un porte-parole, représenté au sens double. (1994, 94)</p></blockquote>
<p>La question n’est peut-être alors pas de déterminer si oui ou non nous jugeons les caricatures de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> offensives, puisque pour beaucoup elles le sont, mais plutôt <i>qui</i> parle, et <i>pour</i> <i>qui</i>. La distinction qu’utilise Spivak entre représentation politique (<i>vertretung</i>, « se mettre à la place de ») et re-présentation artistique (<i>darstellung</i>, « mettre en place ») dans son essai réputé <i>Les subalternes peuvent-elles parler ? </i>suggère que l’action de représenter est à la fois « procuration et portrait » (1988, 276). Alors qu’un petit groupe de terroristes armés se sont auto-désignés porte-paroles des Musulmans opprimés, <i>Charlie </i>a affirmé le droit de re-présenter, et de se moquer, des Musulmans, tandis que d’autres segments de la gauche (principalement blanche et laïque) cherchent maintenant à défendre ces derniers, après avoir longtemps nié l’existence de l’islamophobie en tant que catégorie valide<a href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>. En termes absolus, cependant, aucune représentation ne semble plus légitime qu’une autre, car en toute circonstance, les subalternes ne peuvent pas parler – c’est-à-dire que celles-ci sont privées de la possibilité de s’exprimer en leur <i>propre nom</i>. Ceux que Spivak appelle « impérialistes bienveillants » incluent aussi bien la gauche libérale (au sens anglo-saxon) que la gauche radicale-marxiste occidentale, dont le discours court toujours le risque de tomber dans l’essentialisme (stratégique ou non), constituant un autre exemple de « violence épistémique ». Pour Spivak, « [s]i, dans le contexte de production coloniale, les subalternes n’ont pas d’histoire et ne peuvent pas parler, la femme subalterne, elle, est davantage plongée dans l’ombre » (1988, 287). Cela a été vrai en France, qui a par exemple interdit le port de « signes religieux ostensibles » dans les écoles publiques en 2004, et la « dissimulation du visage » dans les espaces publics en 2010. Les femmes musulmanes, clairement visées bien que la loi ne le dise pas explicitement, ont été à peine consultées, sinon pas du tout.</p>
<p>Il n’est pas surprenant que l’auteur primé <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11347000/Salman-Rushdie-You-can-dislike-Charlie-Hebdo-but-you-cannot-limit-their-right-to-speak.html">Salman Rushdie ait déclaré son soutien à <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> suite à une invitation à l’Université du Vermont le 14 janvier</a>. Tout en étant « postcolonial » de par ses origines culturelles (l’Inde), Rushdie a toujours été un ardent partisan d’une remise en cause du statut quo, et connu pour sa contestation de l’islam en particulier. On a aussi accusé Rushdie de blasphème et d’avoir abusé de la liberté d’expression avec la publication des <i>Versets Sataniques</i> (1988), et on l’a forcé à vivre sous la menace d’une fatwa pendant de nombreuses années. Je crois que le positionnement cosmopolite privilégié de Rushdie est ce qui lui a en partie permis, avec un détachement suffisant, d’ « abuser » de ses origines indiennes comme moyen de décrire les dangers de l’anomie et de l’aliénation sociales dans une Angleterre multiculturelle, postcoloniale, à travers ses personnages Chamcha et Farishta. Cependant, alors que Rushdie a survécu à une menace de mort de l’ayatollah iranien Khomeini, d’autres, comme son traducteur japonais Hitoshi Igarashi, ont été assassinés. Des autodafés du roman ont eu lieu à travers la planète et, comme pour <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>, beaucoup de gens de la gauche se sont pressés d’accuser Rushdie, bien que ce dernier ait toujours affirmé que son livre n’avait, au final, pas grand chose à voir avec l’islam – et encore moins avec l’islamophobie. Ce qu’on a jugé incorrect dans le roman de Rushdie est sa lecture non-littérale (c’est-à-dire à la fois fictionnelle et fictive), ambivalente (capable d’être interprétée de deux façons) et parodique de l’islam, du Prophète et du Coran, entre le sacré et le profane, et à travers l’utilisation par Rushdie du réalisme magique.</p>
<p>De la même façon, on pourrait arguer que les caricatures de Mahomet venant de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> constituent un <i>détournement</i> (au sens littéral comme au sens figuré) du signifiant religieux que représente le Prophète sur le terrain laïque, en tant qu’Être tangible faisant partie de la superstructure sociale et de la sphère idéologique, plutôt que/tout en étant simultanément un artefact figé symbole de la « différence tiers-monde ». Pour Chandra Mohanty, c’est ainsi que la différence tiers monde se lit et est lue aux yeux de l’Occident : « religieux (comprendre réactionnaires), orientés vers la famille (comprendre traditionnels), mineurs légaux (comprendre ils-ne-sont-pas-encore-conscient-de-leurs-droits), illettrés (comprendre ignorants), tournés sur eux-mêmes (comprendre rétrogrades), et parfois révolutionnaires (comprendre leur-pays-est-en-état-de-guerre- ils-se-doivent-de-se-battre !) » (1991, 72). Une action de <i>glissement </i>(« sliding-effect ») du langage, entre le <i>dire </i>(discours) et le <i>vouloir dire</i> (intentionnalité) est à l’œuvre lorsque <i>Charlie</i>, en 2006, reproduit des caricatures de Mahomet provenant d’un journal danois de la droite conservatrice (l’une d’entre elles montrant le Prophète, une bombe sur la tête), ou quand, en 2011, est fait le portrait, en page une, d’un Mahomet en pleurs déclarant que « c’est dur d’être aimé par des cons… », affublé du gros titre « Mahomet débordé par les intégristes ». Le langage, comme l’a observé le théoricien de la déconstruction Jacques Derrida, est, à partir du moment même où nous nous exprimons, toujours déjà rendu «Autre », altéré : « Cette structure d’aliénation sans aliénation, cette aliénation inaliénable n’est pas seulement l’origine de notre responsabilité, elle structure le propre et la propriété de la langue » (Derrida 1998, 25).</p>
<p>L&#8217;herméneutique entourant les caricatures (du latin <i>caricare</i>, « charger, exaggérer ») révèle l’indécidabilité fondamentale du système signifiant et ouvre ainsi le sens à l’<i>excès, </i>à la contingence, à l’indétermination : faire le portrait de Mahomet est blasphématoire; faire le portrait de Mahomet une bombe sur la tête est raciste/islamophobe par la suggesetion que <i>tous </i>les Musulmans sont des terroristes; faire ainsi le portrait de Mahomet fonctionne comme moyen de dénoncer l’extrémisme religieux. Au bout du compte, ces perspectives s’invalident les unes les autres, échouant à atteindre un consensus ou l’unanimité – ce qui est le propre d’un journal satirique et polémique comme <i>Charlie</i><a href="#_ftn3">[3]</a>. Les éditeurs de <i>Charlie </i>ont constamment déployé leur droit à l’ « erreur » (du latin <i>errare</i>, errer ou vagabonder), à la démystification, à la liberté de rire <i>de </i>ainsi que (quelquefois) <i>avec</i>. <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> n’a cessé de réaffirmer le droit d’avoir tort, par-delà une partie de la gauche qui a depuis longtemps désavoué le journal; par-delà les menaces terroristes, mais aussi le politiquement correct. Sur la première couverture de <i>Charlie </i>suite aux attentats, l’on peut voir un Mahomet en pleurs, une pancarte « Je suis Charlie » autour du cou, disant que « tout est pardonné » – là encore, un message hautement ambigu qui résiste à l’interpellation.</p>
<p>Le militantisme <i>laïcard</i> affiché de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i> fut lui-même parfois dogmatique, sinon problématique dans un pays où la laïcité est devenu le cheval de bataille d’organisations issues de l’extrême droite telles que Riposte Laïque, ou bien du gouvernement et de ses tentatives de suppression de la différence culturo-religieuse. Encore une fois, je ne souhaite réfuter aucune des critiques suivantes de la laïcité émanant de la gauche : que la version républicaine française de la laïcité (c’est-à-dire la séparation de l’Église et de l’État dans toutes les questions relatives au affaires publiques) est, en pratique, appliquée de manière sélective; que l’État demeure partial vis-à-vis des Catholiques, à travers le financement direct d’écoles privées catholiques par exemple; que la laïcité ne devrait s’appliquer en principe qu’aux représentants de l’État (loi de 1905), plutôt qu’à ses citoyens (Musulmans récalcitrants), comme c’est désormais le cas depuis 2004 et l’interdiction du foulard islamique (hijab) dans les écoles publiques, ou l’interdiction de la burqa (voile intégrale) dans l’espace public. Cependant, je crois que <i>Charlie</i>  – peut-être malgré lui  – a tout de même aidé à « rendre possible… un sens de l’histoire et de la production humaine, ainsi qu’un scepticisme sain vis-à-vis des diverses idoles vénérées par la culture » (Said, 1983, 290). La compréhension qu’a Said du fait laïque ou séculaire se refuse à une simplicification à l’excès consistant à présenter un sécularisme intrinsèquement progressiste, et un fait religieux rétrograde, ou vice versa. Comme il l’écrit dans son livre <i>The Text, the World, and the Critic:</i></p>
<blockquote><p>Un érudit entend la religion en termes séculaires mais passe à côté de ce qui dans l’Islam donne encore à ses adhérents une nourriture spirituelle sincère. L’autre voit l’Islam en termes religieux mais ignore largement les différences séculaires qui existent au sein de la diversité qui compose le monde islamique. (276)</p></blockquote>
<p>On se doit de maintenir cette double articulation non-manichéenne afin que la subalternité arabo-musulmane puisse un jour tendre à l’auto-représentation, en France, mais aussi ailleurs en Europe, où la principale menace à laquelle nous faisons désormais face n’est pas l’« islam », mais le fascisme. À moins que la gauche ne se mette à se mobiliser pour faire cesser les nombreuses « guerres contre l’erreur » de ce monde, en Afghanistan, en Irak, en Libye ou au Mali, où le néo-impérialisme français est lourdement responsable de la propagation de guerres confessionnelles et du fondamentalisme islamiste, l’exclamation célèbre de Kurtz face aux monstruosités du Congo belge dans le roman (post)colonial classique,<i>Au Coeur des Ténèbres</i> de Joseph Conrad (« L’horreur ! L’horreur ! ») continuera de se faire la chambre d’écho d’une autre apostrophe toute néocoloniale (« La terreur ! La terreur ! »). Considérée comme étant produite par la peur de l’invisible/indicible (par opposition à l’horreur vivide d’un cadavre), la terreur peut frapper n’importe où et à tout moment, rendant à leur tour les mesures antiterroristes futiles, certes, mais pas inoffensives. L’imposition dans les écoles d’une minute de silence en mémoire des victimes des attentats de <i>Charlie Hebdo</i>, en même temps que la criminalisation de voix contestataires, ne va servir qu’à réprimer davantage les libertés citoyennes et à réduire le droit à la désobéissance civile – en particulier pour celles et ceux dont la voix est déjà muselée.</p>
<p>Pour conclure, je citerai <a href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/derrida/derrida911.html">Jacques Derrida, qui dans son « discours sur la terreur » suite au 11 septembre 2001</a>, nous rappelle ce qui rend unique la contribution historique européenne. Loin d’être eurocentrique, Derrida, ne serait-ce que de par ses origines juives algériennes, était bien conscient du fait que les idéaux laïques des Lumières se bâtissent alors sur la dépossession systématique du colonisé, dont les répercussions se font ressentir aujourd’hui. Nous voici donc face à une aporie, ou ce que Spivak appellerait un « double bind », auquel la gauche révolutionnaire aurait tort de renoncer, au prétexte qu’une telle problématique appartient exclusivement à l’héritage libéral, au même titre que le concept abstrait de « liberté d’expression » :</p>
<blockquote><p>Dans la longue et patiente déconstruction qui est requise pour la transformation à venir, l’expérience qu’inaugura l’Europe au temps des Lumières (<i>Enlightenment, Aufklärung, illuminismo</i>) dans la relation entre le politique et le théologique ou, plutôt, le religieux, bien qu’étant encore inégale, irréalisée, relative, et complexe, aura laissé dans l’espace politique européen des marques parfaitement originales en ce qui concerne la doctrine religieuse (remarquez que je ne parle pas de religion ou de foi mais de l’autorité de la doctrine religieuse sur le politique). On ne peut trouver de telles marques ni dans le monde arabe ni dans le monde musulman, ni en Extrême-Orient, ni même, et voici le point le plus sensible, dans la démocratie américaine, dans ce qui <i>dans les faits</i> régit non pas les principes mais la réalité prédominante de la culture politique américaine.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p></blockquote>
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><em>Photo Credit:  Peinture murale, Oberkamf, 11<sup>ème</sup> arrondissement (Paris, France); Copyright © Anne Marie Ricaud</em></span></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/je-suis-charlie-laicite-islam-et-guerre-de-lerreur/">« Je suis Charlie » ? Laïcité, islam et guerre de l’erreur</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>What’s in a name? Boko Haram and the Politics of “Terrorism” in Africa</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/whats-name-boko-haram-politics-terrorism-africa/</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 14 Mar 2015 14:10:27 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Unlike groups such as Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State in Syria and the Levant (also known as Daesh), Boko Haram and other insurgent groups in sub-Saharan Africa are less frequently,[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/whats-name-boko-haram-politics-terrorism-africa/">What’s in a name? Boko Haram and the Politics of “Terrorism” in Africa</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Unlike groups such as Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State in Syria and the Levant (also known as Daesh), Boko Haram and other insurgent groups in sub-Saharan Africa are less frequently, and much more selectively, cast as terrorists. Instead, terrorist bombings, civil wars and other violent events on the African continent are easily dismissed, accepted, or characterized as quotidian, simply part of the consequences of the incapacity and inability of Africans to govern themselves.</p>
<p>On Saturday March 7, 2015 Boko Haram <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/world/africa/boko-haram-is-said-to-pledge-allegiance-to-islamic-state.html?_r=1">pledged allegiance to ISIS</a>. Although the news made global headlines in much of the western media and elsewhere, on the African continent the announcement was only significant as a public confirmation of what had long been an open secret: that Boko Haram was as much a terrorist group as Al-Qaeda, ISIS, or any other group across time and space that has targeted innocent civilians in order to make a political statement. In spite of the similarities in the modus operandi and ideologies of Al-Qaeda, ISIS and Boko Haram, however, and in spite of the fact that Boko Haram has killed as many people as ISIS or Al-Qaeda, the group is less often referred to as a terrorist organization and much more frequently regarded as one of the numerous insurgent groups that have contributed to an erroneous and monolithic image of Africa as a continent of instability and conflict.</p>
<p>This piece sheds light on this inconsistency, approaching the politics of terrorism in Africa in terms of how political violence against poor, defenseless, civilians is conceived by belligerent groups on the continent. The piece also discusses the duplicity with which the murderous actions of ostensible terrorist groups in Africa are externally perceived within prevailing western discourses and often charitably contrasted with terror groups elsewhere, especially in a securitized post-9/11 world that prioritizes the lives of westerners over others.</p>
<p>I argue that the reason why Boko Haram and similar murderous groups in Africa’s recent past are infrequently cast as terrorist entities that pose a viable threat is because their victims have mainly been their fellow Africans.<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> From the Mau Mau in pre-independence Kenya to the African National Congress in Apartheid South Africa, there is abundant evidence to support an assertion that insurgent groups on the continent have only been readily labeled “terrorists” when their victims have been white or non-African, or when they have posed a threat to western interests, such as oil in Algeria. Interestingly, while ignoring the diverse sources of global terror, members of the Republican Party recently <a href="http://www.cbsnews.com/news/obama-avoids-calling-terrorism-islamic/">insisted that President Obama intertwine Islamism with terrorism</a> during the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/02/18/fact-sheet-white-house-summit-countering-violent-extremism">White House Summit on countering violent extremism</a>. The calls once more evidenced the strident hypocrisy with which many in the West have selectively labeled violent extremism to suit their expectations and political needs.</p>
<p>Such debates over terminology are telling, and indicative not only of the way in which terrorism is conflated with Islam but also the indifference with which the rest of the world accepts political violence, such as the one perpetrated by Boko Haram, as part of the everyday in Africa. The conflicts have also conditioned Africans themselves into polarizing conceptions of political order as exemplified by the violence of Al-Shabaab and other competing groups in the destroyed former Somalian state.</p>
<p>Indeed, many among Africa’s most notorious terrorists such as Jonas Savimbi, Charles Taylor, Joseph Kony and Foday Sankoh were called anything <i>but</i> terrorists in the prime of their murderous deeds. Thus, Taylor and Sankoh were frequently referred to by the rather venerated or predictably ethnic titles of “warlords,” or the troublemaking monikers of “insurgents,” yet rarely terrorists. Jonas Savimbi, an infamous terrorist in Angola who was responsible for the death of thousands of his fellow Angolans, was <a href="http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1988/063088a.htm">once welcomed to the White House by the Reagan administration</a>. It should be pointed out that Savimbi’s UNITA “terrorists” laid more landmines that maimed or killed innocent civilians than any other fighting force in the history of Africa. One can be fairly certain that American taxpayer money contributed to that ignominious record, in spite of the Cold War rivalry that many would like to deploy to defend American excesses in that part of the world during the period in question.</p>
<p>Much more recently, as Foday Sankoh and his dreaded <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7910841.stm">Revolutionary United Front</a> terrorists chopped of limbs, disemboweled pregnant women and terrorized their fellow Sierra Leoneans such as myself for over ten years, the closest anyone in the West came to calling them anything deserving of their terrifying reputations was “rebels.” Indeed, of all the insurgent groups in Africa since the 1950s, only groups fighting white-minority governments for the right to self-determination, groups such as the Mau Mau in Kenya,<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> the Zimbabwean African National Union-Patriotic Front and the Zimbabwean African People’s Union forces in Zimbabwe, and the ANC in South Africa were readily and regularly referred to as terrorists. In the 1970s and 80s, the United States infamously placed the African National Congress on an international terror watch list. It was truly one of the head scratching moments in the history of the United States’ international relations. The “terrorist” label assigned to Nelson Mandela and other ANC officials was not removed until well after the ANC attained power in South Africa in 1994, and only following an embarrassing diplomatic faux pas for the United States State Department after <a href="http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-04-30-watchlist_N.htm">Mandela visited the United States</a> in the official capacity of the leader of a friendly country who also happened to be on the “terrorist” watch list.</p>
<p>Earlier this year, while the world’s attention was captivated by the gruesome attacks on the headquarters of French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, a far-greater massacre in scale (if one counts the proportion, not the assigned value, of human lives lost) unfolded several thousand miles away in Baga, a small town in northern Nigeria. According to eyewitness accounts, an estimated 150-2000 people were gruesomely slaughtered over a period of about three nights, from January 3 through January 7, by Boko Haram forces.<br />
The <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30987043">carnage at Baga</a> was one of the sharpest spikes in a long series of Boko Haram massacres in Nigeria extending back to 2009 that have so far left over 13,000 people dead, millions displaced, and countless communities devastated in Africa’s largest economy and its most populous country. Boko Haram has continued its reign of terror since Baga, and the terrorist group has now extended its killing fields across the borders of Nigeria into neighboring Cameroon, Chad and Niger. All three neighboring countries have since joined Nigeria to launch a major offensive against the terrorist group. The African Union has also approved plans to send more troops <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31057147">to join the fight against Boko Haram</a>.</p>
<p>The destruction of lives at Baga and the attack on Charlie Hebdo’s headquarters in Paris elicited quite different, and fascinating, responses in the media. In multiple ways, the varying responses were reflective of how differently terrorism on the African continent has been perceived and received, in contrast with terrorism taking place elsewhere. Whereas world leaders raced to France in the days following the massacres to stand with the French people in solidarity against terrorism, no one offered to make a similar trip to Abuja, the capital of Nigeria, to stand with Nigerians in solidarity against “terrorism,” or to comfort survivors of what was one of the worst atrocities ever to be committed by a terrorist group anywhere in the world. Indeed, even the president of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan, who is seeking reelection from the people of Nigeria, reportedly first offered his condolences to France for the Charlie Hebdo attacks before making the first public comments about the massacres at Baga in his own country. It was the kind of duplicitous reaction one has come to expect in a stratified global community that attaches varying values to human lives, and one that firmly locks Africans and other residents of the developing world into a status and place of third-class global citizenship.</p>
<p>Thus, it is far easier for most observers to humanize violent events and empathize with victims elsewhere at the same time as they are indifferent to similar sufferings of Africans. Of course, global media quickly labeled the Charlie Hebdo attackers “terrorists” and “Islamic radicals” who appeared “well-trained.” On the other hand, the most common epithets for Boko Haram, so far, have been “militants,” “Islamists,” or “insurgents.” Only a few observers describe the incessant atrocities perpetuated by Boko Haram in global media as “terrorism” with any regularity. A <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/24/world/africa/muhammadu-buhari-nigeria-election.html?_r=1">recent report</a> in the New York Times, for example, did not once refer to Boko Haram as “terrorists.”</p>
<p>The closest the world came to standing in solidarity with the victims of terrorism in Africa and the sufferings of the Nigerian people was via the hashtag <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/gallery/bring-back-our-girls-movement/index.html">#Bring Back Our Girls</a>, which sprang up on Twitter following the abduction of over 200 innocent Nigerian girls from their boarding school by Boko Haram in 2014. The solidarity was as fleeting as it was fruitless, as some <a href="http://www.individual.com/storyrss.php?story=202281836&amp;hash=dee443f877df5ed26ad993722db87630">observers have pointed out</a>. The hashtag now largely resides in the deep recesses of the Internet where the occasional troll fishes it up for new memes.</p>
<p>Many have long since dismissed the killings in northern Nigeria as religious, regional, or ethnic strife without accounting for the gaps in the evidence that point to much more than sectarian differences. Why, for example, has the group equally targeted moderate Muslims and non-Muslims in the region? A majority of the victims of the terrorist group have been the people of northern Nigeria, not the assumed political rivals of southeastern Nigerians from the predominantly Yoruba and Ibo ethnic groups. Another confounding detail is why Boko Haram occasionally has released some of their hostages while showing little mercy to others. The inescapable fact is, and should be, that politics in Africa is not unlike politics elsewhere. Political violence occurs less over religious or other ideology on the continent than over processes of public goods distribution and access to resources. Political scientists and economists advise that we must ask who benefits in every situation of public goods distribution, or why the process of distribution breaks down and results in violence in some contexts and not in others. In the case of Boko Haram, we must be prepared to look beyond the limited primordial explanations that have been offered by much of the western media and ask perceptive questions about who is benefiting from, or is likely to benefit from, the breakdown in political order in the northern region of Nigeria in order to begin to understand and find solutions to the problem.</p>
<p>As some observers have questioned, “<a href="http://africajournalismtheworld.com/2014/05/15/nigeria-from-where-does-boko-haram-get-its-weapons/">where does Boko Haram obtain their weapons and equipment</a>?” In several media appearances, Boko Haram elements are shown against the backdrop of gleaming new Toyota trucks and the occasional captured armored personnel carrier of the Nigerian military. Where does Boko Haram acquire new vehicles and weapons with which they attack poor villagers? With regards to access to the Internet, you do not have to be a geography buff to know that Boko Haram’s main areas of operation are some of the most isolated territories in Nigeria. Yet someone who stands to benefit from the terroristic actions of Boko Haram has been dutifully and diligently uploading the group’s videos and messages to the Internet, such as <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31784538">the most recent message of March 7th</a>announcing the group’s allegiance to ISIS.</p>
<p>According to scholars of insurgencies in Africa,<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> rural insurgencies are more often than not elite-led undertakings that originate from the fallout of urban competition for resources. Compared to urban elites, it is much more difficult for rural dwellers to organize due to collective action problems in rural communities and the relative lack of education to overcome such dilemmas. If the terrorism perpetrated by Boko Haram were a truly local affair, where did Abu Bakar Shekau, the mysterious purported head of the group, who has been described as lacking any form of formal education, acquire the resources to launch a military campaign that has been sustained for over half a decade? Part of the answer to this question lies in the same places in the Middle East and the Gulf States, where ISIS have also obtained their funding.<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a><b> </b>Now that Boko Haram has openly pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, maybe the media will, from now onwards, consistently refer to the terrorist group in northern Nigeria as such. The change in terminology might be smaller in the scheme of things, but it will reflect a symbolic change of attitude and an awareness of the scale of the problem facing the global community, not just the western world.</p>
<p>In the search for solutions, we need not look any farther than in places such as the United States Congress where a treaty that was supposed to curb the international trade in small arms sat <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/mike-weisser/un-small-arms-treaty_b_4337810.html">delayed for many years</a> awaiting ratification. The influential gun lobby, the National Rifle Association, and their largely Republican sympathizers in the United States Congress have continually opposed the passage of the bill to serve their common interests. Ironically, the pro-gun rights coalition cobbled together primarily by conservatives in America helps puts the interests of such groups on the same page as the global terrorists they detest as threats to western values. Consequently, it is such missteps that allow bona fide terrorist groups such as Boko Haram to flourish. Indeed, what&#8217;s in a name?</p>
<p><span style="font-size: x-small;"><em>Image Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boko_Haram" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a></em></span></p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/magazine/whats-name-boko-haram-politics-terrorism-africa/">What’s in a name? Boko Haram and the Politics of “Terrorism” in Africa</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>&#8220;Men in the Sun&#8221; and the Modern Allegory</title>
		<link>http://postcolonialist.com/arts/men-sun-modern-allegory/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 11 Mar 2015 22:23:50 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Palestinian novelist Ghassan Kanafani is often compared to William Faulkner, Bertolt Brecht, and occasionally, to Arab authors such as Yahya Haqqi, all bound together as allegorists. The Palestinian novella, Men[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/men-sun-modern-allegory/">&#8220;Men in the Sun&#8221; and the Modern Allegory</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Palestinian novelist Ghassan Kanafani is often compared to William Faulkner, Bertolt Brecht, and occasionally, to Arab authors such as Yahya Haqqi, all bound together as allegorists. The Palestinian novella, <i>Men in the Sun</i>, written by Kanafani in 1962, clearly allegorizes the post-1948 Palestinian refugee experience of deracination and attempts to escape it most starkly. It is the story of three refugees, who illegally travel to another country in search of better lives. Facing miles of desert treks under the scorching sun, the three men end up slowly asphyxiating to death in the back of a water tank truck. Worst and most ironically of all given their lengthy struggle, they do not attempt to save themselves by banging or knocking on the walls of the tank. A classic of post-colonial Arabic literature, <i>Men in the Sun</i> has been lauded for humanizing the discordant Palestinian plight and criticizing the Arab leaders’ silence on the Palestinian issue. However, once the novel is read allegorically, it becomes problematic because the fictive narrative does not easily map onto a fixed system, or political order, and therefore does not offer a concrete representation of the lives of Palestinians refugees. Using Walter Benjamin’s literary and cultural critique offered in <i>Illuminations</i>, this essay demonstrates how an allegory can be constructed in a new manner whereby the state is in development and where nationhood is in the process of formation. To build this argument, I explore notions of experience, trauma, memory, time and space, nation, and gender.</p>
<p><i>Men in the Sun</i> follows three Palestinian refugees: Abu Qais, Assad, and Marawan as they attempt to illegally cross the Iraq-Kuwait border in order to seek employment in the Gulf state; their trauma of existential exile is further exasperated by a harrowing smuggling journey they must undertake in the belly of a water container. Throughout the novella, the characters wrestle over the cost of the journey as well as their own safety and indignation with the profiteering smuggler, but eventually succumb to their struggles. The passive deaths of the men against the backdrop of their ongoing struggle to reach Kuwait amid the suffocating heat of the tank closes the novella with poignant irony.</p>
<p>Kanafani, however, was not allegorizing an aesthetic ideal, but rather a cutthroat and dangerous reality. The distinction between these two ideas mirrors the difference between the traditional allegory and what is known as the modern allegory. Benjamin speaks to this in the German context of drama tragedies. In the <i>Origin of German Tragic Drama</i>, Benjamin makes a relevant distinction between classical German idealism and Romantic thought on one hand, and the modern allegory on the other.<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> He projects his own ideas of what an allegory should constitute in German Baroque literature by making the following comparison: “By its very essence classicism was not permitted to behold the lack of freedom, the imperfection, the collapse of the physical, beautiful nature. But beneath its extravagant pomp, this is precisely what Baroque allegory proclaims….”<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> Benjamin additionally argues that the Baroque movement is corrective of the art of the classical and Romantic traditions which have a “false appearance of totality,” especially when merged with the theological, and which distort the true form and function of the allegory.<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> Benjamin defines an allegory as a form of expression akin to those of speech and writing, which carries certain attributes such as ambiguity, multiplicity of meanings, disunity, and a shock experience!<a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a></p>
<p>Traces of Benjamin’s allegory can additionally be found in his chapter “On Some Motifs in Baudelaire.”<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> In this chapter, Benjamin distinguishes some features of his own conception of allegory, prominent amongst which is his preoccupation with the notion of experience. The concern for Benjamin is ultimately when shock enters and permeates experience. An example of a modern experience of shock can be as standard as walking through a crowd. This can inspire “fear, revulsion, and horror,” as demonstrated in both Poe’s and Baudelaire’s poetry.<a title="" href="#_ftn6">[6]</a> The first line of the latter’s sonnet <i>A une passante</i> reads: “The deafening street was screaming all around me.”<a title="" href="#_ftn7">[7]</a> Bauldaire’s poetry is dominated by a defensive response to that unique shock experience, which the poet, in one of his poems, must combat spiritually and physically. Another reflexive defense, as argued by Freud who Benjamin also cites, would be a person’s own consciousness wherein shocks are parried and protected against materializing into a negative experience or even the recollection of a previous one. Muhsin al-Musawi writes that the novella represents “the writer’s defense mechanism against uprootedness and cruel annihilation.”<a title="" href="#_ftn8">[8]</a></p>
<p>Most saliently to the Palestinian narrative, Benjamin does not argue for the suppression of an experience but instead seems to be emphasizing the changing nature of that experience, particularly within modernity. Moreover, the nature of experience changes in light of the form of the experience that is partaken. Forms of mechanical reproduction, for instance, carry no place for experiences because they partake in the deterioration of the ‘aura’ of those experiences.<a title="" href="#_ftn9">[9]</a> According to Benjamin, its aura diminishes when a work of art becomes reproducible such as in the technology of the camera as well as in modern ‘crowd’ experiences which are “closer to mechanization,” according to Benjamin.<a title="" href="#_ftn10">[10]</a> Hence, one might argue that Benjamin’s notion of experience, though preeminently an experience in its own right, is also invested with intense emotions or psychological ideas such as shock, trauma, and mechanization which might deform or distort the experience in light of Benjamin’s conception of the modern allegory, which purports such characterizations.</p>
<p>Within Kanafani’s novella, geography and memory become elemental to the experience of trauma and struggle. In the opening scene, Abu Qais lies on the ground near Shatt El-Arab, the estuary of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. He recalls a classroom lesson in which the location of Shatt El-Arab was taught, and moves on to measuring the distance between where he is at present and where he is going: “On the other side of this Shatt, just the other side, were all the things he was deprived of. Over there was Kuwait.”<a title="" href="#_ftn11">[11]</a> Hence, memory impels geography to become more prominent, but also further traumatizes the present experience. In an analysis of Baudelaire’s <i>Fleurs du Mal</i>, Benjamin argues that a “memoire involontaire” (experienced in the register of forgetting) is capable of robbing a person of the “ability to experience,” and causing the “present state of collapse of the experience that he once shared.”<a title="" href="#_ftn12">[12]</a> This is precisely the case with Abu Qais, whose synesthetic experience of the “scent of the earth,” which constitutes the <i>memoire involontaire</i>, gives way to the realization that he is dispossessed from his homeland of Palestine, the bearer of these scents that he is immersed in recollecting in the present. In another scene, Assad is cautious about choosing a proper guide for the trip; he recalls the first time he had to undergo an ill-fated smuggling passage from Jordan to Iraq, during which he was duped by his guide into walking around the H4 pipeline stretching from Kirkuk to the Mediterranean. The journey resulted in him barely evading death and in his subsequent obervation, “If they had taken me to the desert prison, Al-Jafr, at H4, I wonder if life would be kinder than it is now.”<a title="" href="#_ftn13">[13]</a> Therefore, a recollection, whether positive or negative, opens up to a traumatic and destructive present moment which removes the ‘essence’ of experience and which emphasizes an immense geographic distance and journey to be undertaken.</p>
<p>Edward Said in particular has written on this situating of the characters in the ‘present.’ In his analysis of <i>Men in the Sun</i>, Said writes that the conflict in the book turns about the “contest in the present; impelled by exile and dislocation, the Palestinian must carve a path for himself in existence.”<a title="" href="#_ftn14">[14]</a> Though this statement might look futuristically upon the role of the Palestinian, it also shows how the future is dependent upon the present situation, which is in constant contestation with its own stability and struggle against dissolution. Hence, the present (or rather the present situation) becomes continuous in light of the volatility of the Palestinian political reality and the political action or lack thereof of the Palestinians who occupy its core. For instance, the attention to time in the novella is attached to the dangerous position the characters find themselves in. They must pass two checkpoints in the heart of the smuggler’s container, Abu Khaizuran; the time spent at each checkpoint is meticulously calculated and appraised, so that each minute is counted either towards the characters’ survival or demise. When the characters emerge safely the first time, they discuss the period of their submergence in the air-tight container with much anxiety. Abu Qais says, “It was six minutes. I was counting the whole time. From one to sixty, a minute&#8230;I counted six times&#8230;.”<a title="" href="#_ftn15">[15]</a> Passing the time it takes to go past two checkpoints while holed up in a tank, the characters’ overbearing experience of time extends to and is in fact determinant of their death. By the time Abu Khaizuran reaches the second checkpoint and is delayed, the characters, who have taken refuge in the container, are dead. The subliminal political message that Abu Khaizuran puts forth is: “Why didn’t you knock on the sides of the tank?”<a title="" href="#_ftn16">[16]</a> Therefore, the time to act becomes important, the opportunity for which is missed in the novella, causing Palestinian resistance to revert back to its ‘present stage’ where the present continues to represent instability, the possibility of demise, and even apathy. The world which Kanafani writes about is one of Palestinian political disenchantment; Arab leaders have either turned their backs on Palestine or enabled policies repressive of Palestinians within their own countries. By 1970, Palestinians suffered from isolation in Lebanon, were driven out of Jordan beginning with the events of Black September, and were marginalized under two post-coup administrations in Iraq and Syria. This goes to show how allegory cannot presently be grounded in a conception of the Palestinian situation as stable, especially when connotations of temporality and nature of struggle might change with the ability to resist the occupation and dispossession.</p>
<p>The personal story of Abu Khaizuran might represent a symbol of that resistance; it is offered as a counterpoint to the despondent story of the three characters, who refused to knock or bang on the sides of the tank, in which they were smuggled across the Iraq-Kuwait border, in order to save their own lives. This futility is further illustrated when Abu Khaizuran later becomes impotent during the 1948 war. His impotence is allegorical of the loss of nation and his own country’s political failure.  He laments his losses, but also tries to re-assert his masculinity by desiring to get married. Abu Khaizuran is then seen as attempting or desiring to regain what has been lost of his body and virility as well as his nation whereby, one can argue, a wishful restoration of masculinity is equated with a desire for nationhood and its fruition.  Though he proclaims that the motives for helping the characters cross over are greed and a plain desire to settle down, he also tells them that he had acted as their savior and “rescued them from the claws of the fat man,” who has led many to their graves through his negligent smuggling practices. He more importantly dismantles the indestructible façade of the fat man by recounting how he has stopped being unconquerable to many who take the trip, and wish to return and “throttle him.”<a title="" href="#_ftn17">[17]</a> His valedictory message—knocking, inspiring resistance and action—emphasizes the more hopeful and salient message he tries to convey against the tragedy of the novella.</p>
<p>By that, one can largely argue that the world or situation of national identity that the author allegorizes is prone to change, even positively. There are, however, conflicting debates on how a national allegory should function and to what it should pertain. Frederic Jameson turns the “other” of the allegory into the frozen category of nationalism and national identity when he argues in a seminal essay that “all third-world texts are necessarily…allegorical, and in a very specific way: they are to be read as what I will call national allegories&#8230;”<a title="" href="#_ftn18">[18]</a> Jameson continues to argue that such texts project a political dimension, and should primarily be read politically in light of the continuing experience of colonialism and struggle for independence that dominate “Third World” cultures. Incapable of reflecting private subjectivity in their works —or anything of the private domain which is inseparable from politics in third-world milieus — third-world authors cannot recount “the individual experience,” and therefore construct national allegories in relation to “the whole laborious telling of the experience of the collective itself.”<a title="" href="#_ftn19">[19]</a> Hence, the collective identity is posited as public, national, and political altogether, an idea contended in the famous rebuttal offered by the critic Aijaz Ahmad.</p>
<p>Ahmad, first and foremost, contends that Jameson’s argument is both reductionist and positivist since nationalism is not necessarily the only political experience of all third-world countries whereby “there is nothing else to narrate” and that national allegories are not the most exclusive nor the only forms of literary device and expression used. Ahmad also objects to the totalizing of historically, economically and nationally different experiences into binary oppositions such as first/third world, and nationalism/postmodernism, to name a few.<a title="" href="#_ftn20">[20]</a> With regards to the collectivity of the national experience, Ahmad uses Jameson’s private/public argument to argue that a personal experience can be a collective along the lines of other forms of collectivity such as race, gender, religion, class…etc., other than the nation, thus eliding the use of national allegory altogether.</p>
<p>My main concern is not whether the private or collective is allegorized, but rather whether the reader of the allegory discerns its “breaks and heterogeneities,” the gaps and discontinuity, and “the multiple polysemia…rather than homogenous representation,” all of which are attributes that Jameson considers when deciphering his national allegory.<a title="" href="#_ftn21">[21]</a> Jameson, however, searches for these attributes on a textual level and does not discern their extra-textual validity. On that note, Amy Zalman, who authored a journal article on two of Kanafani’s novels, suggests a compelling reversal: she writes that the ‘extra-literary ground’ is that which is in flux while “the more stable narrative exists inside the novel.”<a title="" href="#_ftn22">[22]</a> This debate invokes Benjamin’s argument showing how an allegory can function in a new way to explain the discordant realities both inside and outside the worlds of the novella. Benjamin does so by naturalizing the ambiguity of an allegory, which, according to him, is a basic characteristic that must be present (within the allegory). Ambiguity in allegory works against the law of economy, and therefore “is always the opposite of clarity and unity of meaning.”<a title="" href="#_ftn23">[23]</a> One can argue that the ambiguous situation of characters that essentially become functions of the remittance system and immigration reality finds some common ground with (the outside) reality in the other/counterpart of the allegory, causing both worlds of the allegory to become more bridgeable. This holds true in Benjamin’s attribution of the notion of ‘truth’ in allegories. For him, allegory could not exist “if truth were accessible: as a mode of expression it arises in perpetual response to the human condition of being exiled from… truth.”<a title="" href="#_ftn24">[24]</a> Similarly to ambiguity, “exile from truth” extends across the border between the novel and the outside world whereby the daily realities of the refugees and characters, as well as the political fruition of their homeland or Palestine as state, grow more eccentrically adverse and far-fetched, and also intersect. For example, the notion of the past homeland and the collective memory of the lost 1948 war are points that remain as fragments of memory or traces and reminders of an unattainable truth both inside and outside the novella.  Consequently, perhaps what Benjamin’s notion of allegory supports is a rethinking of the allegory based on new, non-fixed experiences that aid in opening up space for change and resistance (such as Abu Khaizuran), as well as bridging both sides of the allegory by its inherent emphasis on attributes such as ambiguity and disjunction.</p>
<p>Literary critics and scholars have been all too aware of the text’s polyphonic art of ambiguities, fragments, breaks and absences. Kanafani’s work has been received variously as a piece of resistance literature, a work of representation, and as a post-colonial text. Saree Makdisi, for instance, argues that the novella implicitly rejects national boundaries, a point that echoes Ahmad’s proposition. Boundaries also include: “the conceptual and political systems that go with them, above all that of the independent nation-state.”<a title="" href="#_ftn25">[25]</a> Abu Khaizaran’s haunting question: “Why didn’t they knock on the sides of the tank?” suggests a call for “purposeful resistance that brings life to death,” as argued by Mausawai in the <i>Postcolonial Arabic Novel: Debating Ambivalence.</i> He continues: “The purgatory denounces a reality, but it also draws attention to its complications.”<a title="" href="#_ftn26">[26]</a> The complications are precisely the ambiguities of Palestinian existence, one that lives despite and beyond its own death. An allegory, such as the one that Benjamin proposes, must take into account the peculiar, ambiguous, and shocking character of the Palestinian situation. In other words, the (political) situation to which a reader might attach or affix an allegorical relationship is an unstable and fluid one. Benjamin’s pertinent criticism of the allegory adopts in its framework this dissonance between the two worlds of the allegory, namely by attaching new meanings and attributes to them as well as attempting to bridge them. Trauma and shock are pertinent to any experience being allegorized. The tension between national and non-national or modern allegory presented in this essay strikes at the core of a contemporary debate on Arabic literature between Jameson and Ahmad. Indeed, the modern allegory should redefine itself to fit and be able to represent a reality that cannot possibly be defined.</p>
<p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/arts/men-sun-modern-allegory/">&#8220;Men in the Sun&#8221; and the Modern Allegory</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Summary Execution: A Recent Episode of Police Violence Against Young, Black Males in Bahia, Brazil</title>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 28 Feb 2015 12:17:26 +0000</pubDate>
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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Photo credit: Morgana Damásio. In protest in 2014 against the genocide of the Black population in the city of Salvador, Bahia promoted by the courageous and fearless campaign REAJA OU[...]</p><p>The post <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/summary-execution-recent-episode-police-violence-young-black-males-bahia-brazil/">Summary Execution: A Recent Episode of Police Violence Against Young, Black Males in Bahia, Brazil</a> appeared first on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://postcolonialist.com">The Postcolonialist</a>.</p>]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><p><span style="font-size: 11px;"><i>Photo credit: Morgana Damásio. In protest in 2014 against the genocide of the Black population in the city of Salvador, Bahia promoted by the courageous and fearless campaign </i><i>REAJA OU SERÁ MORT@!</i> (<i>REACT OR YOU WILL DIE!)</i></span></p></blockquote>
<p>On February 6, 2015, the police of the Brazilian state of Bahia executed twelve Black boys and men with gunshots to the neck in the Vila Moises area of the Cabula neighborhood in the city of Salvador. There were signs of torture, such as broken arms and sunken eyes, violent treatment that could have equally been the work of the police of São Paulo, Alagoas, Rio de Janeiro, or Pernambuco. These are law enforcement practices disseminated throughout the country. The youngest victim was fifteen years old. The oldest was twenty-seven.</p>
<p>A massacre isn’t simply an isolated anomaly, and it shouldn’t be seen as such. Massacres practiced by the police forces of Brazilian states<a title="" href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> exemplify a complete failure of public safety policy and of our republican values, as well as a human rights violation.</p>
<p>Rather than the deaths themselves, the novelty of this massacre was the ensuing public discourse of the recently elected governor of Bahia, Rui Costa, who defended the killings. The police chief<a title="" href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> went further on the morning after the massacre, inspired by the never ending police chronicles, deeming the massacre a successful police operation that killed preventatively. The chief of police defined the massacre as a goal of the police snipers who, rather than police alongside a community and meet its individual needs, decide to eliminate targets in seconds from a calculated distance. This illustrates the ways in which the police trivialize and disrespect the lives of people who pay taxes and the salaries of a police force that kills when it should be protecting them.</p>
<p>Terrified witnesses in Cabula stated that the twelve boys and men were unarmed, there were no signs of confrontation, and they were rounded up and beaten before being taken to a field surrounded by bushes and executed. Since the governor belongs to the left-wing party, there were those declaring nostalgia for the truculent times of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B4nio_Carlos_Magalh%C3%A3es">Antônio Carlos Magalhães</a>, the three-time governor of the state of Bahia, in what amounted to a cruel joke, as bad as those likening Governor Rui Costa with the retired Portuguese soccer player with whom he shares the same name.</p>
<p>Further fanning the flames, the governor responded ironically to a question posed at a February 6<sup>th</sup> press conference<a title="" href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> about the possible scare that the violence perpetuated by the operation could cause to tourists from São Paulo, habitual visitors to Bahia’s carnival. In an attempt to be witty, he attacked the public safety record of the southern state by implying that São Paulo tourists are accustomed to violence since São Paulo has the highest rate of bank robberies in Brazil. Since it is known that the police executioners alleged that the twelve massacred boys and men were going to assault banks, it wouldn’t be frivolous to infer from the context that the twelve Black Bahians were killed (preemptively) to protect White São Paulo tourists. It is also widely known that White tourists from São Paulo flood Bahia’s carnival annually in search of the famed <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/melissa-creary/the-place-of-afrobrazilia_b_5501037.html">‘exoticism’ of the Black Bahian woman</a>. The racist intertextuality of government discourse is as macabre as the application of the death penalty for young Black males.</p>
<p>The Secretary of Public Safety of São Paulo, Alexandre de Morães, did not hesitate to respond. He in turn called the governor of Bahia “feeble and ignorant,” <a title="" href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>in an exchange of informalities reminiscent of comic book dialogue. He revealed that the crime rate of Bahia is four times worse than that of São Paulo, and concluded that the statements of the northeastern representative disrespected the affection that Paulistas<a title="" href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> have for Bahians and the importance of tourism to Bahia. Done—the geopolitical supremacy of São Paulo ended the conversation! Even the response, logically, of the modern football captain is no match for the Robocop captain of the metropolis that looks down upon Brazilian Northeasterners, revealing the country’s regional fractures.</p>
<p>And where are the twelve dead boys and men in this discussion? They disappeared in the volatile and folksy speech of the murderers who justify their act as a fight against crime.  And what about the families of the victims? No one listens to, supports, or compensates them. They are victims of the deadly artillery deployed in a dreadful game that’s been bought in advance, in which the loser is already declared before the referee’s coin toss. An isolated voice has a name, last name and an address; a lady, or a young brother or victim’s cousin who might be the next victim. The grandfather of one of the deceased, Natanael de Jesus Costa (age 17), screamed at the entrance to the hospital that his grandson simply went to deliver pizza to his girlfriend’s house, which was next to the field that later served as the stage on the night of the crime. The boy disappeared from home, only to reappear on the list of bodies to be recognized in the coroner’s office.</p>
<p>And what do the bulk of the population in poor and indigent neighborhoods do now? They repeat, like parrots, the discourse of the legitimization of death heard in the sensationalist bandit-hunting television programs. They believe that if they align with the strongest contingent, the owners of weapons, they will receive protection because <i>they</i> are the workers and the others are the outlaws. What a farce! No one<i> &#8211; no one</i> &#8211; is a citizen when there is impunity! And the taste of the victims’ blood will only reach the mouths and the eyes of the supporters of the massacre when the gunshots destroy the lives of the children raised by their families and their community—the people who have seen them grow and bring pizzas to their girlfriends, or who were overcome by substance abuse, or by overt pressure as well as the allure of drug trafficking. It’s always our dear boys who become dead bodies littering ground.</p>
<p>None of these twelve ‘preemptive’ deaths is justified, even if one of them had a criminal record. And they are certainly not a testament to the success of a police operation. An operation that purposefully results in twelve deaths is arbitrary and illegal. It is catastrophic. Policing should preserve life, not eliminate it to then be excused by explanatory technicalities.</p>
<p>The survival of young Black men throughout Brazil is at stake in the face of a racist construction of the preferred suspect. This is already inadmissible. More reckless still, is that the governor publicly legitimizes and defends the massacre as a kind of winning shot, all the while immortalizing police shootings in poor and unprotected neighborhoods that cannot, and should not, be transformed into gladiator stadiums, where the police practice shooting young, Black male targets in accordance with the wishes of the governor.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><em>This article was originally published in Portuguese on February 9, 2015. <a href="http://cidinhadasilva.blogspot.com.br/2015/02/quando-execucao-sumaria-e-legitimada.html">Quando a execução sumária é legitimada como gol de placa no campeonato de extermínio da população negra, jovem e masculina</a></em></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h2>Additional Reading</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.cartacapital.com.br/sociedade/anistia-internacional-policia-de-salvador-ameaca-comunidade-apos-chacina-3742.html">PM de Salvador ameaça comunidade após chacina, denuncia Anistia Internacional</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.france24.com/en/20150206-brazil-police-kill-13-would-be-bank-robbers-officials/">Brazil police kill 13 would-be bank robbers: officials</a></li>
<li><a href="http://noblat.oglobo.globo.com/artigos/noticia/2015/02/massacre-do-cabula-e-o-gol-do-governador.html">Massacre do Cabula e o gol do Governador</a></li>
</ul>
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